Index
A
ABNJ. See areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ)
AC. See Arctic Council (AC)
Alaska: environmental change in, 40–41; Indigenous peoples and communities in, 20, 26, 33, 39, 47; infrastructure projects in, 82; as part of North American Arctic, 17; purchase of from Russia, 39, 67; rare earths project in, 127, 129; and regional Arctic governance, 27; and resource exploitation, 39; and similarities with Canada’s Arctic, 20; US defence measures in, 34
Amundsen, Roald, 95
Antarctic Specially Managed Areas (ASMAs), 166, 183–84, 186
Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs), 166
Antarctic Treaty: and Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora, 73; and Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), 5, 75, 151, 156–67, 178; and Australia, 72; and geopolitical competition, 80; and geopolitical tensions, 72, 152; and governance of Antarctic, 46; and New Zealand, 230, 232; and protection of living resources, 166; Antarctic claims under, 159; area, 146, 150, 214; signatories of, 3, 94–95, 221; origins, 3, 5 , 76, 80, 94; overlaying treaties and conventions of, 5; Protocol on Environmental Protection, 6, 147, 156, 179, 226; change to in years in to come, 61; and peaceful Antarctic geopolitics, 62, 72–73, 80; as model for the Arctic, 75; and Norway, 95; and US, 94; and Russia/USSR, 94; and North Korea, 94. See also Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCMs); Antarctic Treaty parties; Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)
Antarctic Treaty parties: and claimant states, 150–51; and climate change, 169; and commercial biological prospecting, 165; consultative, 148, 150, 158, 166, 168, 178; co-operative work among, 195; diplomatic tensions among, 159–61; non-consultative (contracting), 157–58, 178; protection of against military activities, 151–52; requirements of, 213–14; and Russian invasion of Ukraine, 153. See also Antarctic Treaty; Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCMs); Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)
Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCMs), 165–66, 168, 220–21; and Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, 147; and Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), 78, 146–48, 214. See also Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)
Antarctic Treaty System (ATS): adaptability of, 170; agreements comprising, 146, 178; and Antarctic governance, 60, 94–96, 145, 153, 155–56, 249–50; and Antarctic Treaty, 5, 75, 151, 156–57, 178; and Australia, 187–88; and ban on Antarctic military activity, 60, 157; and Bouvet Island, 95; challenges facing, 10, 81, 148, 151, 169, 170; and China, 181; compared to Arctic governance, 74, 248; and conflicts between ATS countries, 94, 152–53; constituent elements of, 146, 147; decision-making bodies of, 146–47; consensus-based decision-making of, 152–53, 248; and environmental co-operation, 78, 81; and environmental protection, 10, 168, 171, 208, 222; future of, 194–98; and geopolitical tensions, 78–79, 81, 187, 248; governance model of, 9, 102, 156, 191–92, 194; key features of, 178; member states of, 7, 191–92; and New Zealand, 241; and ocean governance, 156–57, 162, 166, 168; and pollution prevention, 96; and Queen Maud Land, 95; and resource exploitation, 194, 196; and Russia, 153; and Russia-Ukraine conflict, 145; and Cold War, 148, 187; and Convention
Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) (continued)on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), 5; and Koreas, 96; and Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), 147; stability of, 150; as umbrella term, 78; and United Nations, 148; and United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 155. See also Antarctic Treaty; Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCMs); Antarctic Treaty parties
Antarctica: air operations in, 189–90; boundaries in, 69; Chinese policy in, 7, 10; and climate change, 1, 148–50, 192–93, 203, 250–51; defence security in, 38; discourse on militarization in, 151; and East Antarctica, 184, 190–91, 193; environmental challenges in, 10, 203; environmental protection in, 1, 10; exploration of, 69–70; exploitation of resources in, 1, 5, 7, 170–71, 195–98; in the future, 190–93; geopolitical challenges in, 2, 71, 148; and global environmental law, 10, 203; human activities in, 203, 217, 223, 251; ice issues in, 148–49, 169, 193; international security across, 1; invasive species in, 149; New Zealand policy in, 10, 243; remoteness of from human populations, 149, 203, 223; science in, 149–51; security challenges in, 3–4; and similarities/differences with the Arctic, 6, 31, 7–9, 145; sustainable resource exploitation in, 196; tourism in, 95–96, 150, 162, 168–69; unique international legal status of, 149. See also Antarctic Treaty; Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)
Arctic: and Arctic governance, 9, 23, 77, 81, 145; and Arctic Council (AC), 3, 10–11; and Asian Arctic, 17, 20; Canadian-US (CANUS) co-operation in, 25–28; Chinese activities in, 22–24, 110, 241; defence security in, 38, 41, 45; defined, 1, 17; and economic development, 19, 77; environmental challenges in, 32, 38, 48; environmental change in, 1, 18–19, 49, 251; environmental protection in, 1, 65, 74–75, 77, 79; environmental security in, 28, 45; and European Arctic, 17, 68, 71; as “exceptional,” 8, 25, 47, 250; exploration of, 41, 59–60, 64–65, 67; fauna in, 18, 32; flora in, 18, 32; in the future, 27–28, 49, 79, 252; geopolitical challenges in, 2, 24, 46, 238; governance challenges in, 1, 247; human activity across, 19, 20–21, 49; Indigenous communities in, 27, 31, 33, 43; inhabitants of, 18–20, 32–33, 35, 40–41, 46–48; and illicit activities, 19, 34–35, 46; and marine resources, 6, 10; and maritime transportation, 5, 19, 33, 49; and mediation of national interests, 24, 50, 100; military activities in, 28, 34, 45, 47, 62; and North American Arctic, 17, 20, 25, 28; reductions of sea ice in, 18–21, 32, 37, 110, 149; resource exploration in, 19, 23, 34, 72, 95; security challenges in, 3–4, 19, 25, 45, 102; security risks in, 19, 23, 25, 27, 46; and similarities/differences with Antarctica, 6–9, 41, 61, 145, 149; thawing permafrost in, 18–19, 32, 37, 48; tourism in, 19–20, 26, 34, 46; traditional lifestyles in, 19, 33, 37, 48. See also Arctic Basin; Arctic Circle; Arctic Council (AC)
Arctic Council (AC): agenda of, 47, 75, 80, 83; and Arctic governance, 11, 25, 43, 46, 250; and Arctic security, 4, 27, 38, 76; and China, 22, 77; and environmental co-operation, 78–81, 250–51; and multi-track diplomacy, 43, 51; and non-Arctic observer states, 3–4, 100; and prevention of pollution and disasters, 93–94, 96; and Russian invasion of Ukraine, 2, 4, 60; history of, 3, 75; Indigenous groups as part of, 27, 84; members of, 2–3, 27, 43, 83. See also Arctic; Arctic Ocean
Arctic Ocean: and Arctic security, 26, 50, 52, 76 bordering states, 2, 83, 90, 98; climate change in, 32, 247; commercial possibilities in, 19, 46; geopolitical tensions in, 47, 66, 76; and governance, 146; and resource exploitation, 5, 19; and UN Convention on the Laws of the Sea (UNCLOS), 4, 60; Russian claims in, 76–77; US and Canadian disputes in, 76. See also Arctic; Arctic Council (AC)
areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ), 158–59, 164, 166
Argentina: Antarctic airbase of, 190; Antarctic claims of, 69, 72, 90, 99, 150; and Antarctic Treaty, 147, 150, 158; and Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), 161; and disaster diplomacy, 100; and Falkland Islands (Malvinas), 72; and Falklands War, 151–53; and UK, 94, 99, 151–52; and US Energy Resource Governance Initiative, 128, 135
ASMAs. See Antarctic Specially Managed Areas (ASMAs)
ASPAs. See Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs)
ATCMs. See Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCMs)
Atlantic Charter, 134
ATS. See Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)
Australia: and Agreement on Cooperative Enforcement of Fisheries Laws, 164; Antarctic bases of, 186, 188–90; Antarctic claims of, 69, 90, 155, 158, 179–81; Antarctic policy of, 101, 188; and Antarctic Treaty, 72, 150, 158, 160, 171; and the Arctic, 100–1; and Australian Antarctic Division (AAD), 186, 189; and Australian Antarctic Territory, 158, 160, 169, 186–87; and Australian Securities Exchange (ASX), 114–16, 118–19, 128, 131–32; and Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), 147, 167, 171, 179, 217; and critical mineral supply chain, 129–36; and economic interests in Greenland, 110, 112, 114–19, 122, 134; engagement of in Antarctica, 158; and Geoscience Australia, 128, 130–31, 135; inclusion in Five Eyes (FVEY) intelligence alliance, 134; and National Technology and Industrial Base, 136; operations of in East Antarctica by, 188–89; and rare earths supply chain, 129–30; and Southern Ocean, 159, 161, 163–64, 215; and US Energy Resource Governance Initiative, 128, 131, 135
Ayson, Robert, 234
B
Barents Euro-Arctic Council, 93
Barents Sea, 17, 70, 76, 93–94, 98
Barents Sea Treaty, 98
BBNJ. See Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Agreement (BBNJ)
Beaufort Sea, 19, 76; environmental changes in, 32, 40; potential energy projects in, 23, 49
Belgium, 184; and Antarctic Treaty, 150; as Five Eyes (FVEY) third-party partner, 134; as sponsor of scientific research in Antarctica, 165
Belt and Road Initiative, 111, 241. See also China
Bering Sea, 17, 19, 22, 26, 32
Bering Strait, 34
Bezos, Jeff, 114
Biden, Joe, 122
Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Agreement (BBNJ), 164, 171
Bluejay Mining, 114–15, 118, 120
Bouvet Island, 95
Brabyn, Lars, 239
Brazil: Antarctic bases of, 179; and US Energy Resource Governance Initiative, 128, 135
C
CAMLR. See Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CAMLR)
Canada: and Arctic Archipelago, 68; and Arctic security, 26, 28, 46, 50, 71; Arctic claims of, 68, 76–77; Arctic communities in, 3, 26–27, 48; as Arctic Council (AC) member, 3, 43; and Arctic Ocean, 46, 90; and Canadian Rangers, 48; co-operation of with US (CANUS), 25–28, 128; and critical mineral supply chain, 127–29, 132; and Department of National Defence, 27; and Department of Public Safety, 27; and economic interests in Greenland, 110, 112, 114–21; and Geological Survey of Canada, 128, 131, 135; icebreaking capabilities of, 46; inclusion in Five Eyes (FVEY) alliance, 134; and Joint Operations Command, 27; and National Technology and Industrial Base, 136; and North American Arctic, 17, 28, 50 71; and Northwest Passage, 19–20, 32, 98; rare earths processing and supply in, 128–29; and similarities with Alaskan Arctic, 20; as sponsor of scientific research in Antarctica, 165; and territorial dispute with Denmark/Greenland, 98; and US Energy Resource Governance Initiative, 128, 135
Canavan, Matt, 130
Catch Documentation Scheme (CDS), 6, 162
CBD. See Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
CCAMLR. See Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)
CDS. See Catch Documentation Scheme (CDS)
Chile: and Antarctic Treaty, 150, 158; and Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), 161; Antarctic claims of, 69, 72, 90, 99, 100; as sponsor of scientific research in Antarctica, 165
China: activities of in South China Sea, 230, 241, 243; Antarctic activites of, 181–84, 241; and Antarctic air space, 182–83; Antarctic bases of, 7, 179, 182–85, 189, 255; Antarctic interests of, 4, 234, 237; and Antarctic marine protected areas (MPAs), 167–68; and Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), 10, 152–53, 181; and Arctic Council (AC), 4, 22, 77; Arctic interests of, 4, 76, 77, 110; Arctic policy of, 100; Belt and Road Initiative of,
China (continued) 111, 241; and Chinese mining firms, 111, 117; and Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), 5, 167, 181; and critical mineral supply, 130, 132, 135; and defence security, 38; and European Union (EU), 124; global power of, 24, 47, 151; and Greenland, 111–12, 117; and India, 97, 100; and Korean Peninsula, 97; and New Zealand, 241; and Northern Sea Route, 111; and Norway, 97; and Polar Silk Road, 34, 100, 111; and rare earths supply, 124–27, 129, 132; research station of in Svalbard, 100; role of in polar regions, 80, 91, 181; and Russia, 4–6, 22, 152–53, 243; as sponsor of scientific research in Antarctica, 165; and United States, 109–10, 112, 125, 198, 243
Chukchi Peninsula, 18
Chukchi Sea, 17, 19, 22–23; environmental changes in, 32, 40; potential energy projects in, 23, 49
circumpolar North. See Arctic
CLCS. See Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), 159–61
climate change: and Arctic Ocean, 247; and Barents Euro-Arctic Council, 93; and human conflict, 39, 91; and Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), 217; and geopolitical tensions, 5, 169; and geopolitics, 9, 60, 242, 149, 248; global influence of, 251; and Greenland, 112; impact of on Antarctica, 148–50, 162, 192–93, 198, 233; and marine resources, 7; and New Zealand, 233–35, 238–39; in polar regions, 1, 7, 50, 63, 169; threats of, 61, 65, 149, 203, 223, 251; and UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 206–7. See also environmental change
Cold War: and Antarctic governance, 94, 151, 177, 198, 243; and control of the Arctic, 68; and geopolitical tensions in the Arctic, 34, 47, 70–71, 98; and Norway, 2, 93; and origins of Antarctic Treaty, 3, 5, 148, 152, 178–79; and post–Cold War Arctic security, 76–77; and post–Cold War environmental co-operation, 2, 74, 247
Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), 159–61
Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CAMLR). See Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR): annual meetings of, 147; and Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), 5, 73, 156, 179, 222; and Australia, 179; and Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) agreement, 171; and Catch Documentation Scheme (CDS), 163; and China, 6, 181; and climate change, 217; conservation measures of, 162, 179, 195, 215–17, 221; and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) provisions, 217, 221; exceptions from application of, 223; in the future, 194; and governance of the Southern Ocean, 171, 179; history of, 146; and illegal fishing, 6, 163–64, 171; limitations of, 163–64; marine areas regulated by, 166, 213; and marine protected areas (MPAs), 167–68; ocean area of, 6, 146, 172; and specially protected (ASPAs) and specially managed (ASMAs) areas, 166; permission of regulated fishing by, 150; and plastic pollution, 169–70; principal objective of, 214; requirement of full consensus, 166, 167; Scientific Committee of, 147, 221; signatories of, 5, 148
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, 73, 146, 156, 178, 223
Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), 156, 169
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 206, 209, 212, 214, 217–18
Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species Wild Flora and Flora, 156
Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities, 73, 146
critical minerals: and Critical Minerals Mapping Initiative, 128; supply chains for, 127–36
D
Dalby, Simon, 29
Davis Station (Antarctica), 189–90
defence security, 8, 38; in the Arctic, 45, 50; in polar regions, 38; within tripartite environmental security (TES) complex, 30, 35, 37, 44, 50–51. See also tripartite environmental security (TES)
Denmark: as Arctic Council (AC) member, 3, 43; and Arctic military regional co-operation, 26; and Arctic Ocean, 90; as Five Eyes (FVEY) third-party partner, 134; and Greenland, 9, 98, 109, 112, 248; as sponsor of scientific research in Antarctica, 165. See also Greenland,
diplomacy: and information, military, economics (DIME), 38, 44; and multi-track diplomacy, 42–43, 51–52; and official diplomacy, 42; and track one and a half diplomacy, 43, 51; and track one diplomacy, 42; and track two diplomacy, 42, 43. See also disaster diplomacy
DIME. See under diplomacy
disaster diplomacy: concept of, 9, 89, 91–92; Norway as case study in, 92, 94, 96–102; in polar regions, 249. See also diplomacy
DROMLAN. See Dronning Maud Land Air Network (DROMLAN)
Dronning Maud Land Air Network (DROMLAN), 184, 185
E
EEZs. See exclusive economic zones (EEZs); extended economic zones (EEZs)
ecological security: defined, 37; and environmental security, 37; and New Zealand, 243; within tripartite environmental security (TES) complex, 35, 44, 51. See also tripartite environmental security (TES)
EIA. See Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Eisenhower, Dwight, 150
electric vehicles, 122–24, 135
environmental change: in Antarctica, 5, 148; and Antarctic governance, 250; in the Arctic, 19, 26, 33, 46, 48; in the Bering Sea, 19–20; challenges, 48; and environmental conflict, 40, 51; forecasting, 49–50; and geopolitical change, 234; and human conflict, 29; and human security, 65; impact on Arctic inhabitants, 47–48; in polar regions, 1; political ramifications of, 251; and tripartite environmental security (TES) complex, 30. See also climate change
environmental conflict, 39, 40, 51; defined, 39; drivers of, 39, 51; and environmental access, 40; and environmental control, 40
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): in Antarctica, 203, 217–18; and biodiversity, 210; and Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), 217; and Madrid Protocol, 218, 221; and Marine Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) agreement, 164; process of, 212, 222; recognition of by Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 209, 212; recognition of by International Court of Justice (ICJ), 212; recognition of by International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), 213; recognition of by UN Convention of the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 212; and sustainable development, 212; and UN Fish Stocks Agreement, 211
Environmental Protocol (Antarctic Treaty), 72, 146–48, 233; Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP), 147, 214, 221. See also Antarctic Treaty, Madrid Protocol; Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
environmental security: in the Arctic, 28, 45; in Antarctica, 10; concept of, 29; and diplomacy, 43; and ecological security, 37; literature on, 29, 35; in polar regions, 30, 51–52; pragmatic framework for, 30, 44–45; threats to, 32; and tripartite environmental security (TES) complex, 9, 30, 35–37, 44–45, 50; variables affecting, 29–30, 35–36. See also tripartite environmental security (TES)
European Union (EU): as non-Arctic actor, 34; and China, 124; demand for rare earths by, 123–24; and marine protected areas (MPAs), 167, 217
exclusive economic zones (EEZs), 158–59, 163–64. See also extended economic zones (EEZs)
extended economic zones (EEZs), 22–23. See also exclusive economic zones (EEZs)
F
Falkland Islands (Malvinas), 72, 152
Finland, 98, 184; and Russia, 99; as Arctic Council (AC) member, 3, 43; and Arctic Ocean, 90
Five Eyes (FVEY): alliance partners, 110, 117, 121, 229, 250; and Antarctic Treaty, 152; co-operation with Greenland, 110, 132, 134–36; critical minerals alliance, 109, 132, 134–36; origins in Atlantic Charter, 134; proposals for extended framework of, 134–36; and rare earth elements, 122, 124, 132
Flamm, Patrick, 238
France: and Antarctic Treaty, 150, 158; Antarctic claims of, 69, 90, 150; Antarctic facilities of, 185, 189; and Australian claims in Antarctica, 158; claims of in Southern Ocean, 215; and Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities, 146; co-operation of with Australia, 163–64; as Five Eyes (FVEY) third-party partner, 134; and marine protected areas (MPAs), 167, 217
Frankfurt Stock Exchange (FSE), 115, 118, 129
Franklin, Sir John, 82
Frederiksen, Mette, 109
FSE. See Frankfurt Stock Exchange (FSE)
FVEY. See Five Eyes (FVEY)
G
General Nice Development, 111, 113, 117
Geological Survey of Canada, 128, 131, 135
Geoscience Australia, 128, 130–31, 135
Germany, 34, 160, 184; as Five Eyes (FVEY) third-party partner, 134; as sponsor of scientific research in Antarctica, 165; and Nazi Germany, 92
Greece, 91
greenhouse gas emissions, 148–49, 239
Greenland: and Australia, 110, 112, 114–21, 134; ban on uranium mining in, 116–17, 133; and Canada, 110, 112, 114–21, 134; Chinese interest in, 111–12; critical minerals in, 109, 131–32, 134; and Denmark, 9, 98, 109, 112, 248; energy and mining firms in, 112–14, 116, 118–19, 131; energy potential of, 111–12; fish and seafood exports of, 111, 121; Five Eyes (FVEY) co-operation with, 110, 132, 136; projects being developed in, 113–20; proposed acquisition of by US, 109–10; rare earth elements in, 131–34; resource potential of, 110–12, 117–18, 133–34; strategic importance of, 9, 110, 132, 248; and UK, 110, 112, 121; untapped oil potential of, 110. See also Denmark
Greenland Minerals, 116–17, 121, 132–33
H
Heininen, Lassi, 74
Hemmings, Alan, 222
Hillary, Sir Edmund, 232
Hudson Resources, 113, 116, 120–21, 133
human security: concept of, 37–38; and the environment, 29–30; within tripartite environmental security (TES) complex, 8, 30, 35, 37, 44, 50–51; in polar regions, 37. See also tripartite environmental security (TES)
I
icebreaking ships, 21–23, 33–34, 46, 189, 238
Iceland: and China, 22; as Arctic Council (AC) member, 3, 43; and Arctic Ocean, 90, 98; territorial waters of, 90
ICJ. See International Court of Justice (ICJ), 212–13
illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, 6, 162–64
India: Antarctic bases of, 179, 185; and Australia, 131, 160–61; and China, 97, 100; and Dronning Maud Land Air Network (DROMLAN), 184; as global power, 179; interest of in Antarctic mineral resources, 237; involvement in polar regions, 91, 101; research station of in Svalbard, 100; as sponsor of scientific research in Antarctica, 165
Indigenous communities and peoples: absence of in Antarctica, 78; in Alaska, 20, 47; in the Arctic, 31, 33, 41, 59, 96; and governance, 3, 25–27; organizations and groups of, 27, 44, 74–75, 78–79; role of in Arctic international relations, 83–84
International Arctic Science Committee, 27
International Court of Justice (ICJ), 212–13
International Maritime Organization (IMO), 27, 33, 169
IMO. See International Maritime Organization (IMO)
International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), 212–13
Inuit Circumpolar Council, 83. See also Indigenous communities and peoples
ITLOS. See International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)
IUU See illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing
J
Japan: and Antarctic Treaty, 150; Arctic interests of, 34; and Australia, 131, 160; and Dronning Maud Land Air Network (DROMLAN), 184; and marine protected areas (MPAs), 168; and rare earths supply, 124–25, 132
Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE), 115, 118–19
Johnson, Constance, 159
JSE. See Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE)
K
Kielsen, Kim, 109
killer whales, 32, 238. See also orcas
Kontar, Yekaterina, 101
Korean Peninsula, 97
Koreas (North and South), 96–97
Kriwoken, Lorne, 222
Kunlun Station (Antarctica), 182–83, 185
L
LNS Greenland, 113
London Mining, 113
London Stock Exchange (LSE), 115–16, 118–19, 131
LOSC. See Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC); United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC). See United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
LSE. See London Stock Exchange (LSE)
M
Madrid Protocol: area regulated by, 156; and Australia, 179; and China, 181; and comprehensive environmental evaluation (CEE), 218–20; consensus clause of, 78, 81; designation of Antarctica in, 179; environmental impact assessment (EIA) provision of, 217–18, 220–22; and initial environmental evaluation (IEE), 218, 220; and marine protected areas (MPAs), 168; and moratorium on resource exploitation, 60; parties of, 221; prohibition of mineral resource extraction, 161; and review of scheduled in future, 171; and specially designated areas (ASPAs, ASMAs), 166; and territorial claims in Southern Ocean, 159. See also Environmental Protocol (Antarctic Treaty); Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
Malvinas, 151. See also Falkland Islands; Falklands War
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): concerns about, 171; and Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), 166–68, 216–17; and Madrid Protocol, 168; and Marine Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) agreement, 164; proposals for, 167–68, 217; in Southern Ocean, 166, 168, 171, 194–95; and UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 216
MARPOL. See Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)
Mawson Station (Antarctica), 186, 189–90
Morrison, Scott, 130
MPAs. See Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
multi-track diplomacy, 42–43, 51–52. See also diplomacy
N
Nansen, Fridtjof, 95
NATO. See North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
Netherlands, 34, 160, 184; as Five Eyes (FVEY) third-party partner, 134; as sponsor of scientific research in Antarctica, 165
New Zealand: Antarctic bases of, 227, 241; and Antarctic security, 231; and Antarctic Treaty, 150, 158, 233, 239; and ANZUS alliance, 229; Antarctic claims of, 69, 90, 150, 181; engagement of in Antarctic, 227, 232–33; interests of in Antarctic, 228–39, 241–43; Antarctic policy of, 228, 242, 248; and Australian territorial claims in Antarctic, 158; and China, 241; and Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), 161; and critical mineral supply chain, 132; Defence Force (NZDF), 232–33, 235–36; and disaster diplomacy, 100; and Environmental Protocol (Antarctic Treaty), 233; exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of, 242; and Five Eyes (FVEY) alliance, 132, 134; foreign policy of in Antarctica, 231, 242–43; limited military capabilities of, 241–42; and marine protected areas (MPAs), 168; record of Antarctic engagement, 231; and Ross Dependency, 241; security policy of in Antarctica, 243, 245; security in Southern Ocean, 235; as sponsor of scientic research in Antarctica, 165; and US Energy Resource Governance Initiative, 135; and US National Technology and Industrial Base, 136
NORAD. See North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD)
North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), 7, 26–27
North American Arctic, 20, 33, 48; Canadian-US (CANUS) co-operation in, 28; defined, 17; illicit activities in, 34; security in, 25, 30, 48, 50, 71
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 24, 27, 92, 98, 229; and geopolitical tensions in the Arctic, 7, 98; and Norway, 92, 97; and Soviet Union, 71, 99; and Warsaw Pact, 74
North Pole, 41, 66, 68, 77, 93
North Warning System, 26
Northern Sea Route (NSR), 20–21, 49, 111; and changing Arctic sea ice, 110; and Russia, 5, 19, 21, 32
Northwest Territories, 17, 26, 128–29
Northwest Passage, 19–20, 32, 49, 82; dispute about between Canada and US, 20, 76, 77, 98
Norway: Antarctic claims of, 69, 90, 150; and Antarctic Treaty, 95, 150, 158; Arctic claims of, 68, 76; as Arctic Council (AC) member, 3, 43; and Arctic Military Environmental Cooperation project, 2; and Arctic Ocean, 90; and Australian claims in the Antarctic, 158; and China, 97; and Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), 161; and concerns about militarization of Antarctica, 183; and disaster diplomacy, 9, 89–92, 96–98, 101; and Dronning Maud Land Air Network (DROMLAN), 184; as Five Eyes (FVEY) third-party partner, 134; and Koreas, 97; as NATO member, 92; as a neutral state, 92, 96; and New Zealand, 99; and Poland, 101; and Russia, 93–94, 97–98; and South Pole expedition, 95; and Svalbard, 93
NSR. See Northern Sea Route (NSR)
O
orcas, 90. See also killer whales
P
Panama Canal, 33
Peter I Island, 95
Polar Silk Road, 34, 100, 111. See also China
Press, Anthony, 186
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, 72, 146–48, 233. See also Environmental Protocol (Antarctic Treaty); Madrid Protocol
Q
R
rare earths: and China, 124–27, 133; in defence sector, 123, 126; defined, 122; demand for, 122–23; European dependence on Chinese supply of, 124, 132; exploration of, 34; in electric vehicles, 122; and green energy transition, 122; importance of, 124; need for among Five Eyes (FVEY) countries, 122; processing and supply in Australia, 129–30; processing and supply in Canada, 128–29; processing in UK, 131; supply in Greenland, 116, 121, 132–33; projects in US, 126–27, 130; supply restrictions by China, 125; in tech sectors, 122, 124. See also critical minerals
Robinson, Jessica, 131
Romania, 185
Ross Dependency, 231–33, 236, 240
Ross Sea, 149, 167, 217, 223, 236, 238
Rothwell, Donald, 159
Russia: Antarctic airfields of, 182, 184; Antarctic bases of, 185–86, 189; and Antarctic exploration, 69; as Antarctic Treaty Consultative Party, 145; and Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), 10, 152–53; Antarctic claims of, 5, 99–100; Antarctic interests of, 4; Arctic bases of, 21, 180, 184; Arctic claims of, 77, 90; as Arctic Council (AC) member, 3, 43; Arctic interests of, 4; Arctic residents in, 41; as Arctic maritime power, 21; and Arctic military activities, 21–22, 24; and Arctic military infrastructure, 34; and Arctic Military Environmental Cooperation project, 2; and Arctic Ocean, 90; as chair of Arctic Council (AC), 4; and Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), 160; and competition with China and US in the Antarctic, 243; competition with China and US in the Arctic, 47; and Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), 5; and defence security, 38, 47; and Dronning Maud Land Air Network (DROMLAN), 184; exploitation of Antarctic marine resources by, 6; in East Antarctica, 184; interest in Antarctic mineral resources by, 237; invasion of Ukraine by, 2, 4, 145, 152–53, 184, 242; and Finland, 99; and hostility in the Arctic, 98, 100; and icebreaking ships, 22; and international rules-based order, 4; and marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Antarctic, 167–68; and Northern Sea Route (NSR), 19–21, 32; and Norway, 76, 92–94, 97–98; and resource exploitation in the Arctic, 20; as sponsor of scientific research in Antarctica, 165; and Svalbard Treaty, 93; and tensions with fellow Arctic nations, 24. See also Soviet Union; Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
S
Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), 147, 161, 170
Scott, Robert, 95
Shenghe Resources Holding Company Ltd., 111, 127, 133
South Africa: and Antarctic Treaty, 150
South Korea, 91, 94, 124, 134, 238
Southern Ocean: and Antarctic Treaty, 156, 159; and Antarctica, 2, 8, 31, 41, 148, 155; and atmospheric carbon dioxide, 149, 155–56; and Australia, 158, 161, 187; and Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), 163–64, 166, 215; and global environmental law framework, 203; and New Zealand, 235–36, 242; and tourism, 168; areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) in, 159; challenges and opportunities in, 155; environmental control in, 40; exclusive economic zones (EEZs) in, 163; fisheries in, 156, 162; governance of, 156–57, 161, 171; illegal fishing in, 164; marine protected areas (MPAs) in, 168, 171, 194–95; marine resources management in, 7, 156, 179, 250; maritime boundaries in, 159, 162; pollution in, 169–70; resource exploitation in, 166, 170–71, 197; resource potential of, 78, 81, 155, 157; territorial claims in, 159; warming of, 149
Soviet Union, 21, 74, 150–51, 153, 184. See also Russia; Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
Spain: as Five Eyes (FVEY) third-party partner, 134; as sponsor of scientific research in Antarctica, 165
Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment, 204
Suez Canal, 33
Svalbard, 41, 93, 101; research stations at, 100; Treaty, 93
Sweden: as Arctic Council (AC) member, 3, 43; and Arctic Ocean, 90; as Five Eyes (FVEY) third-party partner, 134; as sponsor of scientific research in Antarctica, 165
T
TES (tripartite environmental security), 36–37, 44–45, 51
Thorhallsson, Baldur, 231
Toronto Stock Exchange Venture Exchange (TSXV), 113, 115–19, 127, 129, 133
tourism: in Antarctica, 95–96, 150, 162, 168–69; in the Arctic, 19–20, 26, 34, 46
Transpolar Sea Route, 49
tripartite environmental security (TES), 36–37, 44–45, 51
Trudeau, Justin, 128
TSXV (Toronto Stock Exchange Venture Exchange), 113, 115–19, 127, 129, 133
Turnbull, Malcolm, 130
U
Ukraine: invasion of by Russia, 2, 4, 145, 152–53, 184, 242; and marine protected areas (MPAs), 168
UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development). See under United Nations
UNCLOS. See United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), 92–94, 98–100, 187, 233. See also Russia; Soviet Union
United Kingdom: Antarctic claims of, 72, 90, 99–100, 150, 186; and Antarctic exploration, 69, 95; and Antarctic security, 243; and Antarctic Treaty, 150, 158; Arctic interests of, 91; and Argentina, 94, 99, 151; and AUKUS, 234, 241; and Australian claims in Antarctica, 158; and British Geological Survey, 135; and China, 124; and Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), 161; and critical mineral supply chain, 134–36; and Dronning Maud Land Air Network (DROMLAN), 184; and economic interests in Greenland, 110, 112–21, 131–32, 134; and Five Eyes (FVEY) alliance, 132, 135; and Ireland, 213; and Korea, 131; and National Technology and Industrial Base, 136; and New Zealand, 231–32; and South Pole expedition, 95; as sponsor of scientific research in Antarctica, 165
United Nations: and Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), 148; and Australia, 160; Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), 205, 210; Fish Stocks Agreement, 211, 217; General Assembly, 204; global plastics treaty of, 170; and governance of high seas, 164; and human security, 37; and Norway, 92; Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 206–7; and United States, 160. See also United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS): and Antarctica, 159; application of to Arctic Ocean, 4, 76; and Arctic Basin, 17; and rights to territorial seas, 145, 155, 230; and Southern Ocean, 156–57. See also United Nations
United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement, 211, 217
United States: Antarctic claims of, 5, 99, 150, 159, 161; Antarctic exploration by, 69; Antarctic
United States (continued) Program of, 232; and Antarctic security, 241, 243; and Antarctic Treaty, 94; and ANZUS alliance, 229; Arctic claims of, 90, 98; as Arctic Council (AC) member, 3, 43; and Arctic exploration, 66, 68; Arctic Extended Economic Zone, 32; and Arctic Military Environmental Cooperation project, 2; and Arctic security, 21, 46, 50, 70–71, 76; and AUKUS defence grouping, 234; and China, 24, 47, 198, 243; Coast Guard, 26, 34, 47, 50; and critical mineral supply chain, 127–28, 130–32, 135; and demand for rare earths, 122, 124–26; and economic interests in Greenland, 109–12, 117–18, 122; and Energy Resource Governance Initiative, 135; and Five Eyes (FVEY) alliance, 110; Geological Survey, 110, 128, 130–31, 135, 143; military, 47, 50; Navy, 50; and National Technology and Industrial Base, 136; National Weather Service (NWS), 48–49; and New Zealand, 231–32, 241; Northern Command, 27; and Northwest Passage, 20; and security partnership with Canada, 27, 28; and South Pole Station, 182–83, 186; in the South Pacific, 234; as sponsor of scientific research in Antarctica, 165; political tensions with Russia/USSR, 22, 167, 187; purchase of Alaska from Russia by, 39, 67; rare earths mining and processing in, 126–27; and UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 160
United States Coast Guard, 26, 34, 47, 50
United States Department of Defense, 27, 130
United States Geological Survey, 110, 128, 130–31, 135, 143
United States National Weather Service (NWS), 48–49
United States Navy, 50
United States Northern Command, 27
UN Fish Stocks Agreement. See under United Nations
UN Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC). See United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). See under United Nations
US Coast Guard. See under United States
US Department of Defense. See under United States
US Geological Survey. See under United States
US National Weather Service (NWS). See under United States
US Navy. See under United States
University of the Arctic, 27
USSR. See Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR); Soviet Union
V
Vostok Station (Antarctica), 180, 184–85
W
Warsaw Pact, 74
World Commission on Environment and Development, 37, 204
Y
Yulin, Wu, 7
Z
Zinke, Ryan, 13