Notes
Introduction
1 www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/rob-magazine/top1000.
2 See Appendices 3A and 3B.
3 www.fortune.com/fortune 500/global500; Steve Coll, Private Empire: Exxon Mobil and American Power (New York: Penguin Press, 2012), 65–6.
4 Graham D. Taylor, The Rise of Canadian Business (Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press Canada, 2009), 73.
5 Henrietta M. Larson, Evelyn H. Knowlton, and Charles S. Popple, The History of Standard Oil (New Jersey): New Horizons 1927–1950 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 720–1.
6 Mira Wilkins, “The History of Multinational Enterprise,” in A.M. Rugman et al., ed., The Oxford Handbook of International Business, 2nd edition (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010), 3–39.
7 The volumes of The History of Standard Oil (New Jersey) are cited throughout this work. Other examples include Mira Wilkins and Frank Ernest Hill, American Business Abroad: Ford on Six Continents, 2nd edition (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press 2011), and George David Smith, From Monopoly to Competition: The Transformations of Alcoa, 1888–1986 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
8 Julian Birkenshaw, “Strategy and Management in MNE Subsidiaries,” in Rugman et al., the Oxford Handbook of International Business, 367–89; Geoffrey Jones, Multinationals and Global Capitalism (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2005), 162–3.
9 Joseph A. Pratt and William E. Hale, Exxon: Transforming Energy, 1973–2005 (Austin, TX: Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin 2013).
Prologue
1 Barry Broadfoot, Interviews with Vern Hunter, Doug Layer, W.D.C. MacKenzie, Vern Taylor. Imperial Oil Archives, Glenbow Museum and Archives, Calgary, Alberta, Series 16: Records of the External Affairs Department [Edited versions of these interviews were published in Barry Broadfoot and Mark Nichols, Memories: The Story of Imperial’s First Century (Toronto: Imperial Oil, 1980)]. Petroleum Industry Oral History Collection, Glenbow Museum and Archives: Vern Hunter [interviewed 17 Aug 1983 by Aubrey Kerr]; Doug Layer [interviewed 12 July 1983 by Nadine Mackenzie]; Vern Taylor [interviewed 4 June 1981 by Aubrey Kerr]. Jacqueline Chartier, “Vern ‘Dry Hole’ Hunter: How a Preacher’s Son Became an Oilpatch Legend,” Alberta History 56, no. 3 (Summer 2008): 2–7. “Birth of an Oil Well,” Imperial Oil Review (Apr 1947): 3–5. Hal Tennant, “Leduc—Turning Point of an Industry,” Imperial Oil Review (Feb 1958): 3–15.
2 John S. Ewing, “History of Imperial Oil,” unpublished manuscript, Imperial Oil Archives, Glenbow Museum, chs 8, 15; Graham D. Taylor, “From Branch Operation to Integrated Subsidiary: The Reorganisation of Imperial Oil Under Walter Teagle, 1911–1917,” Business History 34, no. 3 (July 1992): 49–68.
3 “Claim Biggest Oilfield Soon Opens in North,” Globe & Mail, 20 Oct 1920, 2.
4 George de Mille, Oil in Canada West: The Early Years (Calgary: Northwest Printing & Lithographing, 1970), 147–209. Earle Gray, The Great Canadian Oil Patch: The Petroleum Era from Birth to Peak, 2nd edition (Edmonton: June Warren Publishing, 2004), 114–42; Aubrey Kerr, Leduc (Calgary: Altona, 1991), 21–32.
5 Minutes of the Board of Directors, Imperial Oil Ltd., 7 May 1947; 3 Sept 1947; 8 Sept 1947; 7 Oct 1947. Imperial Oil Shareholders, Special General Meeting, 22 Sept 1947. Imperial Oil Archives, Glenbow Museum and Archives, Series 2: Corporate Services. Bennett H. Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment: A History of the Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) 1950–1975 (New York: McGraw Hill Co., 1988), ch. 12. [Note: currency figures are identified as either in Canadian dollars (CAD) or US dollars (USD)].
Chapter 1
1 Joyce Barkhouse, Abraham Gesner (Don Mills: Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 1980), 50–60; Kendall Beaton, “Dr. Gesner’s Kerosene: The Start of American Oil Refining,” Business History Review 39 (Feb 1955): 28–53; Loris S. Russell, “Gesner, Abraham,” Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 9 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976), www.biographi.ca/en/bio/gesner_abraham; Earle Gray, “Gesner, Williams and the Birth of the Oil Industry,” Oil Industry History 9 (2008): 11–23; Allison Mitcham, ed., The Best of Abraham Gesner (Hantsport, NS: Lancelot Press, 1995); Jean-Pierre Proulx, Whaling in the North Atlantic: From Earliest Times to the Mid-19th Century (Ottawa: Parks Canada National Historic Parks and Sites Branch, 1986), 68–9.
2 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 34–44; Edward Phelps, “Foundations of the Canadian Oil Industry, 1850–1866,” in Edith Firth, ed., Profiles of a Province: Studies in the History of Ontario (Toronto: Ontario Historical Society, 1969), 156–9; Christina Burr, Canada’s Victorian Oil Town: The Transformation of Petrolia from a Resource Town into a Victorian Community (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2006), 38–9, 58–66; Hope Morritt, Rivers of Oil: The Founding of North America’s Petroleum Industry (Kingston: Quarry Press, 1993), 19–37.
3 Earle Gray, Ontario’s Petroleum Legacy (Edmonton: Heritage Community Foundation, 2008), 38–9; Burt, 87–96; Morritt, 85–6.
4 Timothy W. Cobban, Cities of Oil (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013), 13–24; W.B. Mack, “Oil Refining in London,” 29 Nov 1948, Imperial Oil Archives, Acc. 800074/001(01).
5 W.A.E. McBryde, “Petroleum ‘Deodorized’: The Early Canadian History of the ‘Doctor Sweetening’ Process,” Annals of Science, 1 May 1991, 102–11; Cobban, 19–21. Ewing, chapter 2, 14–15.
6 Hugh Grant and Henry Thille, “Tariffs, Strategy and Structure: Competition and Collusion in the Ontario Petroleum Industry, 1870–1880,” Journal of Economic History 61, no. 2 (June 2001): 392–3; Ewing, ch. 2, 27–8; Ben Forster, A Conjunction of Interests: Business, Politics and Tariffs 1825–1879 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1986), 111–12.
7 Quoted in Hugh Grant, “The ‘Mysterious’ Jacob L. Englehart and the Early Ontario Petroleum Industry,” Ontario History 75, no. 1 (Mar 1993): 68.
8 Grant, “The ‘Mysterious’ Jacob L. Englehart,” 68–71; Cobban, 19–20; Morritt, 89–90, 98–100; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 489–92.
9 Harold F. Williamson and Arnold R. Daum, The American Petroleum Industry: The Age of Illumination 1859–1899 (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1959), 337–9; Canadian Petroleum Production, Historical Statistics of Canada Q19-25. www.statcan.gc.ca/publ/11-516-x; Gary May, Hard Oiler! The Story of Canadians’ Quest for Oil At Home and Abroad (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1998), 70–5.
10 Cobban, 48–59; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 492–5; Grant, “The ‘Mysterious’ Jacob L. Englehart,” 72–3; Morritt, 115–16; Albert Tucker, “Englehart, Jacob,” Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. XV (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005), www.biographi.ca.
11 Cobban, 29–33; Forster, 156–7; Grant and Thille, “Tariffs, Strategy and Structure,” 393–4; Williamson and Daum, 209–11.
12 Imperial Oil Agreement, 30 Apr 1880. Imperial Oil Archives, Corporate Affairs, Historical File, Box 7, File 6.
13 Ewing, ch. 2, 68–9; Robert Page, “The Early History of the Canadian Oil Industry, 1860–1900,” Queen’s Quarterly 91, no. 4 (Winter 1984): 855; Imperial Oil Agreement, 30 Apr 1880.
14 Norman R. Ball and Edward Phelps, “Williams, James Miller,” Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. XI (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1982), www.biographi.ca/en/bio/williams_james_miller; Burt, 119–22.
Chapter 2
1 Williamson and Daum, 211–31, 273–9.
2 Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller (New York: Vintage, 1998), 73–95, 129–55, 157–82; Williamson and Daum, 301–8, 346–56.
3 Ralph W. Hidy and Muriel Hidy, History of Standard Oil (New Jersey): Pioneering in Big Business (New York: Harper & Bros, 1955), 40–68; Greene, William N., “Strategies of the Major Oil Companies,” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 1982), ch. 3, 3–6.
4 Imperial Oil Profit and Loss Account, 1880–1882. Imperial Oil Archives; Williamson and Daum, Appendix D3, 747.
5 Cobban, 40–2; G.A. Purdy, Petroleum: Prehistoric to Petrochemicals (Toronto: Copp Clark, 1957), 32–3.
6 Hugh Grant and Henry Thille, “How Standard Oil Came to Canada: The Monopolization of Canadian Petroleum Refining, 1886–1898,” (unpublished ms, July 2004), 4–5, 856.
7 W.A.E. McBryde, “Ontario: Early Pilot Plant for the Chemical Refining of Oil in North America,” Ontario History 79, no. 3 (Sept 1987): 217–19; Cobban, 67–8; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 497–8; Ewing, ch. 2, 42–6.
8 McBryde, 219–24; Hidy, 160–5.
9 Imperial Oil Profit & Loss Statements, 1890–1894. Imperial Oil Archives; Ewing, ch. 2, 83–92.
10 Ewing, ch. 4, 5–6; 858–9. Samuel Rogers’s son, Edward “Ted” Rogers, was one of the founders of radio broadcasting in Canada, and his son Ted Rogers Jr. became the head of the largest cable system in the country.
11 Hidy, 128–44; Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money and Power (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 57–63.
12 Ewing, ch. 3, 67–70.
13 Hidy, 209–25; Chernow, 330–42.
14 Grant and Thille, “How Standard Oil Came to Canada,” 7–8; Cobban, 68–70.
15 See Appendix 1.
16 Ewing, ch. 4, 60–6, 862–4.
17 Ewing, ch. 4, 78–89; Cobban, 71–2; Imperial Oil, Profit and Loss Accounts 1894–1898. Imperial Oil Archives.
Chapter 3
1 Imperial Oil Ltd., Minutes of Board Meeting, 12–13 Jan 1899. IOL Minute Books 1899–1915. IOL Archives; Ewing, ch. 5, 1–4, 14–17.
2 Hidy, 254–6, 315–16.
3 Cobban, 71–3; Ewing, chapter 5, 18–20; John T. Saywell, “The Early History of Canadian Oil Companies: A Chapter in Canadian Business History,” Ontario History 53, no. 1 (1961): 68–71.
4 Ewing, ch. 6, 26–39; Imperial Oil Board of Directors Minutes 16 July 1908; 8 Dec 1908.
5 Steve Weinberg, Taking on the Trust (New York: Norton, 2008), 208–28; Nevins, vol. 2, 519–26; Hidy, 649–52; Yergin, 96–110.
6 Hidy, 694–8; Standard Oil of New Jersey v. United States 221 US 1. law.cornell.edu/supreme court/text.
7 Hidy, 711–14; Joseph A. Pratt, “Exxon and the Control of Oil,” Journal of American History 99, no. 1 (June 2012): 147–8. By 2000, Indiana Standard, Ohio Standard, and Atlantic Refining ended up as part of British Petroleum (BP). Standard of California (Chevron) remained, along with Exxon-Mobil, as the most durable survivors of the 1911 dissolution.
8 Harold F. Williamson et al., The American Petroleum Industry: The Age of Energy 1899–1959 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishers, 1959), 167–205, 242–60; Jonathan Singer, Broken Trusts: The Texas Attorney General versus the Oil Industry 1889–1909 (Texas: A&M University Press, 2002), 57–68.
9 Yergin, 71–7, 87–95, 121–8; Hidy, 547–79.
10 Wall and Gibb, 61–9; 83–4, 94–6; George S. Gibb and E.H. Knowlton, The History of Standard Oil of New Jersey: The Resurgent Years 1911–1917 (New York: Harper, 1956), 28–9, 76–7.
11 Walter Teagle to H.P. Chamberlain, 27 Jan 1912; Teagle to W.J. Hanna, 28 Nov 1913 Imperial Oil Archives, President’s File, Box 24, File 1 (Acc. 80-0013); Hanna to Teagle, 16 Dec 1913; Teagle to Hanna, 10 Jan 1914. Imperial Oil Archives, President’s File, Box 1, File 3 (Acc. 80-0028); Ewing, ch. 7, 81–2; ch. 8, 46–53; Imperial Oil Board of Directors Minutes, 29 Jan 1913, 12 Nov 1915.
12 Ewing, ch. 7, 30–4; chapter 9, 3–9; chapter 11, 96–8; Imperial Oil Board of Directors Minutes, 29 Sept 1914; 28 Aug 1916.
13 Wall and Gibb, 108–9, 113–14. The development of the Joint Industrial Committees at Imperial is described in chapter 5.
14 A.C. Bedford, Standard Oil (N.J.) to Teagle, Memorandum on Employee Stock Distribution, Feb 1916; Bedford to Teagle, 25 Sept 1916. Imperial Oil Archives, President’s Files, Box 2 “Special File” (Acc. 80-0028). Imperial Oil Board of Directors Minutes, 12 Nov 1915; Ewing, ch. 8, 48–53; Wall and Gibb, 108.
15 Teagle to W.J. Davidson, 17 June 1916. Imperial Oil Archives, President’s Files, Box 2, “Special File” (Acc. 80-0028).
16 Imperial Oil Board of Directors Minutes 12 Nov 1915; 9 Aug 1917; 10 Dec 1917; Dominion of Canada Income Tax Assessment Notice 27 Oct 1921. Imperial Oil Archives, Series 4 (Acc. 80-0073).
17 Wall and Gibb, 110–11.
18 Imperial Oil and International Oil Co. in South America is discussed in chapter 4. Imperial Oil’s quest for oil in western Canada is discussed in chapter 6.
19 Imperial Oil Board of Directors, Board of Directors, 1 Aug 1919.
Chapter 4
1 Walter Teagle to W.J. Hanna, Re: Peruvian Situation, 8 Nov 1913. IOL Archives, Series 5 Corporate Affairs, Box 6, London & Pacific Petroleum Co. file; Charles Goodsell, American Corporations and Peruvian Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), 120; Gibb and Knowlton, 94–5; Wall and Gibb, 97–8.
2 W.C. Teagle to Montagu Pierce, London, 13 Dec 1913. London & Pacific Petroleum file, IOL Archives Gibb and Knowlton, 95–6.
3 Alan Hill, “Historical Foundations of Canada’s Oil Industry” (MA thesis, University of Manitoba, 1979), 187.
4 M.J. Hanna, Imperial Oil Ltd., to W.T. White, Minister of Finance, Ottawa, 10 Apr 1914. London & Pacific Petroleum files, IOL Archives; Wall and Gibb, 99–100.
5 Resolution confirming the General By Laws of the International Petroleum Co. Ltd., 31 Dec 1914; “International Oil Securities Listed,” 5 May 1915. London & Pacific Petroleum file, IOL Archives. IPC issued $1,039,000 in common shares on the Toronto Stock Exchange, while IOL retained majority control of the issued stock.
6 Gibb and Knowlton, 95; Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977: Growth and Policy in an Open Economy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 100–5.
7 Jonathan C. Brown, “Jersey Standard and the Politics of Latin American Oil Production, 1911–30,” in John D. Wirth, ed., Latin American Oil Companies and the Politics of Energy (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985), 16–17.
8 Brown, 17–18; Peter Klaren, Peru: Society and Nationhood in the Andes (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 213–18.
9 Goodsell, 120–1, 141–2; Alberto Pinelo, The Multinational Corporation as a Force in Latin American Politics: A Case Study of the International Petroleum Company in Peru (New York: Praeger, 1973), 13–14; Wall and Gibb, 101–4.
10 Hill, 190–3; Pinelo, 17; Harvey O’Connor, World Crisis in Oil (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1962), 225–31. According to Hill, based on research in the State and Military Records of the Public Archives of Canada, the Canadian government did not officially requisition the tankers, and the British minister in Lima protested against the withdrawal of the IPC tanker supplying the domestic market.
11 Gibb and Knowlton, 99–105; Brown, 19–20.
12 Brown, 20; Goodsell, 121; Gibb and Knowlton, 367–9; Thorp and Bertram, 108–11. The 1922 agreement was subsequently endorsed by an arbitration panel of the Hague International Court.
13 Marcelo Bucheli, “Multinational Oil Companies in Colombia and Mexico: Corporate Strategy, Nationalism and Local Politics,” unpublished paper presented at the International Economic History Meeting, Helsinki 2006, 9–10; Marco Palacios, Between Legitimacy and Violence: A History of Colombia 1875–2002 (Durham: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 85–6; Mira Wilkins, “Multinational Oil Companies in South America in the 1920s,” Business History Review 48, no. 3 (Autumn 1974): 430.
14 Gibb and Knowlton, 369–71; Wall and Gibb, 189–93.
15 Bucheli, “Multinational Oil Companies in Mexico and Colombia,” 6–9; Richard Lael, Arrogant Diplomacy: U.S. Policy toward Colombia 1903–1922 (Wilmington: Scholarly Resources Press, 1987), 93–4; Palacios, 69–71; Wall and Gibb, 192–3.
16 Wall and Gibb, 84–5.
17 The company name appears in various iterations, including Andean and Andian. I have used the latter because it is the spelling that appears most frequently in contemporary Imperial Oil documents.
18 Teagle to Hanna, 7 Jan 1914. London & Pacific files, IOL Archives; Brown, 31–2; Hill, 194–5.
19 “Stockholders Vote for Big Oil Merger,” New York Times, 20 Aug 1920; Gibb and Knowlton, 371–2.
20 Minutes of Annual General Meeting of Imperial Oil, Toronto, 22 Feb 1923. Annual General Meetings, Corporate Records, Series 1, IOL Archives.
21 Minutes of Imperial Oil Annual General Meeting, 26 Feb 1927. IOL Archives.
22 Edwin Lieuwen, Petroleum in Venezuela: A History (New York: Russell and Russell, 1954), 84–5.
23 Henrietta Larson, Evelyn Knowlton, and Charles Popple, History of Standard Oil (New Jersey): New Horizons 1927–1950 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 58–9, 132–8; Greene, “Strategies of the Major Oil Companies,” ch. 4, 22–3.
24 Frederick Pike, The Modern History of Peru (New York: Praeger, 1967), 268–76; Goodsell, 142; Thorp and Bertram, 165–6.
25 Rene De La Pedraja, Energy Politics in Colombia (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989), 5–11, 25–6, 36–8; Palacios, 99–103; Stephen Randall, The Diplomacy of Modernization: Colombian-American Relations 1920–1940 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1971), 90–4.
26 Gibb and Knowlton, 372.
27 Imperial Oil Review, June 1933, 6–7, 12–13; Gibb and Knowlton, 103–4.
28 Imperial Oil Co., Annual General Meeting, 22 Feb 1923. IOL Archives.
29 Bucheli (2008), 80.
30 Brown, 29–30.
31 Imperial Oil President Charles O. Stillman, Report to Annual General Meeting, Toronto, 15 Mar 1928. IOL Archives; Bucheli, (2006) 81–2; Palacios, 86. The main target of political ire at this point was the Colombian Oil Company, a subsidiary of Gulf Oil, which had acquired the “Banco concession” in eastern Colombia but had failed to develop the field: De La Pedraja, 12–14; Randall, 98–9.
32 “Petroleum Transport in the Tropics,” Imperial Oil Review (Sept 1927).
33 Xavier Duran, “Oil in Colombia 1900–1950: Speculators and Multinational Companies,” Ecopetrol: Energia limpia para el future. www.ecopetrol.com.co/especiales, n16. During the 1930s–40s the average Bayonne refinery output was about twice the volume of all the Imperial refineries in Canada. Larson et al., 200–1.
34 Imperial Oil, Minutes of the Annual General Meeting, 1922, 1924, 1927. IOL Archives.
35 Gibb and Knowlton, 458–9; Larson et al., 115, 474, 720.
36 Ewing, ch. 15, Tables 1–2; ch. 20, Tables 1–2. International Petroleum Company Annual Reports 1932–46. IOL Archives. See Appendix 1].
37 Ewing, ch. 20, 6–7.
38 See Appendix 2A.
39 Ewing, ch. 20, 4–5;
40 Duran, 4–5; De La Pedraja, 36–8.
41 Larson et al., 726–7; Bennett H. Wall, History of Standard Oil (New Jersey: Growth in a Changing Environment 1950–1975 (New York: McGraw Hill, 1988), 431–44.
42 Victor Bulmer Thomas, The Economic History of Latin America since Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 156–60, 424–5; Palacios, 14–15.
43 Palacios, 58.
44 Thorp and Bertram, 164.
45 Wilkins (1974), 422–3. Gibb and Knowlton, 503–6.
46 Wall, 435.
Chapter 5
1 Wall and Gibb, Teagle, 120–2.
2 Ewing, chapter 8, 83–4; Imperial Oil Review (August 1919): 13; February 1922, 3; “G. Harrison Smith the New President,” Imperial Oil Review (June/July 1933): 12–13; Thelma LeCocq, “LeSueur: Imperial’s President,” Canadian Business (July 1944): 28–9.
3 Wall and Gibb, 71.
4 Wall and Gibb, 202–10; Gibb and Knowlton, 279–307; Yergin, 197–204.
5 Wall and Gibb, 258–60; Yergin, 260–5; Anthony Sampson, The Seven Sisters, 86–7.
6 Wall and Gibb, 236–45; Alfred D. Chandler Jr., Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of American Industrial Enterprise (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1962), 164–225.
7 Historical Statistics of Canada, T147-194a; Ewing, ch. 6, 5–6; Robert Ankli et al., “Adoption of the Gas Tractor in Western Canada,” Canadian Papers in Rural History 2 (1980): 9–39; Steve Penfold, “Petroleum Liquids,” in R.W. Sandwell, Powering Up Canada: A History of Power, Fuel and Energy from 1600 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2016), 276–9.
8 Gibb and Knowlton, 113–16; Purdy, Petroleum, 157–9.
9 Gibb and Knowlton, 115–18.
10 Ewing, ch. 11, 63–71; Gibb and Knowlton, 532–6; “Imperial Oil Announces New 3 Star Gasoline,” Globe & Mail, 3 Sept 1931, 15. Imperial’s research and development operations are reviewed in more detail in chapter 8.
11 Ewing, ch. 9, 22–3. One of these independent distributors was Kenneth Irving in New Brunswick, who leveraged his “partnership” with Imperial in the 1920s into a full-fledged integrated oil company (with offshoots in shipbuilding and numerous other industries) in the years after 1948. Irving became one of the richest individuals in Canada, while hiding his wealth overseas.
12 Gibb and Knowlton, 487–9, 502–3; Ewing, ch. 9, 26–33, 71–2.
13 Ewing, ch. 9, 24–5, 66; Imperial Oil Review (February 1922): 3, 17; March 1934, 27. Union Oil of California (later Unocal) was acquired by Standard of California (Chevron) in 2005.
14 Saywell, “Early History of Canadian Oil Companies,” 71–2; Earle Gray, “How Shell Bought the No. 3 Spot,” Oilweek, 27 Nov 1967, 19–25.
15 Earle Gray, “BA Poised for Dynamic Growth,” Oilweek, 9 Oct 1967, 24–8; “A.L. Ellsworth,” Globe & Mail, 7 June 1929, 21. In 1965 Gulf Oil acquired British American Oil.
16 Charles Law, “Trust Texaco to Go Where the Most Profits Flow,” Oilweek 1 Nov 1968, 21–4, 30; “McColl Brothers Oil Sale is Completed,” Globe & Mail, 7 Dec 1927, 7; “Texaco Buys into McColl Frontenac,” Globe & Mail, 27 Apr 1938, 18; “Texaco Corporation Wins McColl Fight,” Globe & Mail, 3 June 1938, 20. In 1994 Imperial Oil acquired Texaco Canada during the chaotic aftermath of Texaco’s bankruptcy.
17 Ewing, ch. 15, 14–16; “Imperial Oil Ltd. Will Split Common Stock Four-One,” Globe & Mail, 2 Apr 1929, 7; “Imperial Oil Soars to New High 119 ½ under Heavy Buying,” Globe & Mail, 15 Apr 1929; “Losses Predominate Among Active Issues on Exchange,” Globe & Mail, 16 Oct 1929, 6.
18 “Imperial Oil Limited and Consolidated Subsidiaries Financial Review: Twenty Year Statistics,” [1952, 8]. IOL Records, Series 4 [Comptrollers Records], Box 292A Acc. 80-0021.
19 C.D. Crichton, “‘Exclusive Rights Agreement’ Newfoundland Petroleum Monopoly, 1932–34,” 5 Dec 1960; G.H. Smith, Vice President IOL, to Sir Wilfred Grenfell, 27 May 1932 (Attachment No. 5); Victor Ross to G.H. Smith, 3 Apr 1932 (Attachment No. 6); Victor Ross, “Newfoundland Exclusive Rights” [re: Amulree Commission report], 28 Nov 1933 (Attachment No. 12). Imperial Oil Ltd. Vertical File: History, Misc. Glenbow Archive. See Peter Neary, Newfoundland in the North Atlantic World 1929–1949 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1988), 12–28, on the background to this episode. Newfoundland joined Canada in 1948.
20 Ewing, ch. 15, 31–2, 36.
21 G.A. Purdy, Petroleum: Prehistoric to Petrochemical (Toronto: Copp Clark, 1957), 125–30, 153–5; Hugh M. Grant, “The Petroleum Industry and Canadian Economic Development: An Economic History 1900–1960” (PhD diss., University of Toronto, 1987), ch. 3.
22 Gibb and Knowlton, 141–52, 575–77; Howard M. Gitelman, The Legacy of the Ludlow Massacre: A Chapter in American Industrial Relations (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988); Paul Craven, An Impartial Umpire: Industrial Relations and the Canadian State 1900–1911 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980).
23 “The Industrial Representation Plan,” Imperial Oil Review (January 1919); H.M. Grant, “Solving the Labour Problem at Imperial Oil: Welfare Capitalism in the Canadian Petroleum Industry 1919–1929,” Labour/Le Travail 41 (Spring 1998): 81–3; Ewing, ch. 8, 72–3.
24 “In Quebec,” Imperial Oil Review 4 (1971); East Montreal Refinery, IOL Vertical File.
25 Grant, “Solving the Labour Problem,” 79–81.
26 All references are from the Montreal East Refinery Joint Industrial Council Minutes. IOL Archives, Series 18, Human Relations Acc 80002, Box 02.
27 “Pacific Pioneer,” Imperial Oil Review 5 (1971).
28 All references are from the Ioco Refinery Joint Industrial Council Minutes, IOL Archives, Series 18, Human Resources, Box 2, Acc. 90-0001.
29 “History of Ioco Strike, 24 Sept–26 Nov 1957.” Imperial Oil Archives, IOLpub 6-12. Glenbow Archives; Imperial Oil Executive Committee Minutes, 19 Sept 1957; 11 Nov 1957; 26 Nov 1957. Imperial Oil Archives, Series 2, Executive Committee Minutes. [Hereafter cited as IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes], Glenbow Archives.
30 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 29 May 1969; 6 Oct 1969.
31 “Joint Industrial Councils and Committees in I.O.L.,” 11 Jan 1977. IOL Archive, Vertical Files, Industrial Relations.
Chapter 6
1 Peter McKenzie Brown, Bitumen: The People, Passions and Performance behind Alberta’s Oil Sands (Calgary: Create Space Independent Publishing Platform, 2017), 29–30.
2 David H. Breen, Alberta’s Petroleum Industry and the Conservation Board (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1993), 8–15; F.K. Beach and J.L. Irwin, “The History of Alberta Oil,” (Edmonton: Alberta Department of Lands and Mines, 1939), 8–13.
3 David H. Breen “Anglo-American Rivalry and the Evolution of Canadian Petroleum Policy to 1930,” Canadian Historical Review 62, no. 3 (1981): 283–6.
4 David Finch, Hell’s Half Acre: Early Days in the Great Alberta Oil Patch (Surrey, BC: Heritage House Publishing, 2005), 18–23; “Herron’s Gas Seep Started in All,” Oilweek 14, 18 May 1964; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 71–80; Colin A.M. Duncan and R.W. Sandwell, “Manufactured and Natural Gas,” in Sandwell, ed., Powering Up Canada, 318–25.
5 Bosworth’s report on his 1914 expedition into Alberta may have influenced Shell in its 1917 bid for a monopoly in the exploitation of oil development in the region. Peter McKenzie-Brown, Bitumen, 59–61, 67–8.
6 “Claim Biggest Oilfield Soon Opens in North,” Globe & Mail, 20 Oct 1920, 2.
7 Ewing, ch. 12, 8–22; De Mille, Oil in Canada West, 151–5, 185–99; John Ness, “The Story That Can Never Be Told,” IOL Archive, Vertical Files, IOL History 1948–55; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 119–20.
8 Sarah Lawley, “The Link of History,” Imperial Oil Review (Spring 1989): 17–19; Frank H. Ellis, “Bold Venture into Northern Winter,” Imperial Oil Review (April 1971): 130–3; J.M. Smallwood, “Oil in the Frozen North,” American Review of Reviews (1921): 639–44. IOL Archives, Vertical Files, Industry & Trade: Canadian North File.
9 J.H. McLeod, “A Factual Memorandum Concerning the History of the Incorporation and Development of Royalite Oil Company Limited,” 13 Dec 1938. Royalite Archives, Glenbow Museum and Archives, Series 9: M6891/File 197, 5–6; Ewing, ch. 12, 28–30; Finch, 25–6; Gibb and Knowlton, 659; Timothy Le Riche, Alberta’s Oil Patch (Calgary: Folklore Publishing, 2006), 46–7. McLeod had also headed the Dalhousie Company in 1925–28.
10 Breen, Alberta’s Petroleum Industry, 36–7; Patricia Barry, “The Canol Project: An Adventure of the U.S. War Department in Canada’s Northwest” (Edmonton: P.S. Barry, 1985), 242–5.
11 Finch, 38–42; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 82–4.
12 “Royalite Oil Takeovers,” Royalite Archives, Series 9, File 1; McLeod, “Factual Memorandum,” 11–15; Ewing, ch. 12, 34–5.
13 Ewing, ch. 12, 38; James Gray, R.B. Bennett: The Calgary Years (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991), 119–29; Peter B. Waite, In Search of R.B. Bennett (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2012), 12–13.
14 “Eugene Lacoste Deplores Wasting of Alberta’s Gas,” Toronto Globe, 9 Dec 1929, 6; Larson et al., New Horizons, 110–11.
15 Royalite Annual Meetings 5 Apr 1927; 30 Apr 1929; 18 Apr 1933; 30 Apr 1935. Royalite Archives, M6891, File #8; Breen, Alberta’s Petroleum Industry, 51–8, 72–3; McLeod, “Factual Memorandum,” 6; Le Riche, 46–8.
16 Earle Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 85–7; Gray, “Home Oil Built on Turner Valley,” Oilweek 15, no. 1, 18 May 1964; Le Riche, 77–9.
17 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 100–5.
18 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 108–9.
19 Breen, Alberta’s Petroleum Industry, 110–19, 138–45; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 106–10.
20 “Alberta’s Oil Industry: Report of a Royal Commission to Inquire into Matters Connected with Petroleum and Petroleum Products,” 266–71. IOL Archives, McGillvray Commission; “Alberta Royal Commission Reports on the Oil Industry,” Imperial Oil Review (Summer 1940): 23–9; Breen, Alberta’s Petroleum Industry, 169–87; Finch, 81–2.
21 “Imperial Oil Contribution to the War Effort,” n.d. (c. 1944), Vertical Files, Petroleum in War, IOL Archives; Larson et al., New Horizons, 392–8; Purdy, Petroleum, 51–2.
22 Larson et al., 161–6.
23 R.K. Stratford, “The Canadian Petroleum Industry’s Contribution to the War,” 1944, Petroleum in War, Vertical Files, IOL Archives; Stratford, “Post War Advantages Expected to Result From Processes and Products Developed for Wartime Purposes,” 1945, Petroleum in War, Vertical Files, IOL Archives; Larson et al., 507–12; Purdy, Petroleum, 52. Chapter 8 provides more details on Imperial Oil research and the development of petrochemicals.
24 Stetson Conn and Byron Fairchild, The Framework of Hemispheric Defense (Washington, DC: US Department of the Army, 1960), 390–408; Brian Garfield, The Thousand Mile War: World War II in Alaska and the Aleutians (Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press, 1995).
25 Life, 13 Apr 1942, 20.
26 Philip Fradkin, “The First and Forgotten Pipeline,” Audubon News, November 1977, 59–67; Patricia Barry, “The Prolific Pipeline: Getting Canol Under Way,” Dalhousie Review 56, no. 2 (Summer 1976): 252–67; Charles R. O’Brien, “The Canol Project: A Study in Emergency Planning,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 61, no. 2 (April 1970): 101–8; Ian Kerr Kelly, “The Canol Project: Defence, Politics and Oil” (MA thesis, Trent University, 1977), 18–45. Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 121–4. The term “Canol” is usually interpreted to stand for “Canadian Oil” but has also been presented as an acronym for “Canadian American Norman Oil Line.”
27 Kelly, 47.
28 Ewing, ch. 16, 17–20; Kelly, 44–5. Ewing noted that at this time the cost of transporting crude oil to the Norman Wells region would be $6.00 (CN) per bbl., while the average cost of crude oil in the US was $1.25/bbl.
29 Patricia Barry, “The Canol Project: An Adventure of the U.S. War Department in Canada’s Northwest” (Edmonton: P.S. Barry, 1985), 253–4.
30 Barry, “Canol Project,” 261.
31 Patricia Barry, “The Prolific Pipeline: Finding Oil for Canol,” Dalhousie Review 57, no. 2 (Summer 1977): 205–23; Ewing, ch. 16, 21–4; Stephen J. Randall, United States Foreign Oil Policy Since World War I (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2005), 160–5.
32 W.D.C. Mackenzie, interview. IOL Archives, Oral History Collection.
33 Fradkin, 75–6; Kelly, 102–6.
34 Kelly, 150–3; Ewing, ch. 16, 24–5; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 130–1.
35 Ewing, ch. 10, 70–6; Larson et al., 323–4.
36 Ewing, ch. 17, 13–19, 31–45, 85–6.
37 “Discovery at Jumping Pond,” Nickle’s Daily Oil Bulletin, 15 Dec 1944; “Sun Oil of Philadelphia Enters Alberta,” Nickle’s Daily Oil Bulletin, 16 Jan 1945.
38 Ewing, ch. 17, 9–13. The US had introduced an oil depletion allowance in 1926, and expanded it during the Second World War.
39 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 134.
40 Larson et al., 723–4; Breen, Alberta Petroleum, 248–9.
41 Gray, The Great Canadian Oil Patch, 136–41; Breen, Alberta Petroleum, 250–1; Hal Tennant, “Leduc—Turning Point of an Industry,” Imperial Oil Review (February 1957): 3–7; “Imperial-Leduc: It’s an Oil Discovery!,” Nickle’s Daily Oil Bulletin, 14 Feb 1947. The events on 13 Feb 1947 are recounted in the prologue to this book.
Chapter 7
1 W.G. Charlton, “Imperial Oil Limited History 1950–1975,” 4–5. Imperial Oil Archives, Series 5. Glenbow Museum & Archives; Eric J. Hanson, Dynamic Decade: The Evolution and Effects of the Oil Industry in Alberta (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1958), 66–83; Oliver Knight, “Oil—Canada’s New Wealth,” Business History Review 30, no. 2 (September 1956): 297–328.
2 Erik Lisee, “Betrayed: Leduc, Manning and Surface Rights in Alberta, 1947–55,” Prairie Forum 35, no. 1 (Spring 2010): 77–100.
3 “Report of an Assessment of Farmers’ Opinions in the Leduc Area Pertaining to Drilling Operations,” 23 Oct–5 Nov 1947. Imperial Oil Archives Acc 80-0039, Box 27, File 2. Glenbow Archives.
4 Hanson, 79–83.
5 See chapter 13 for a more detailed account of the Atlantic #3 fire.
6 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 150–2, 215–18; Hanson, 101–9.
7 Breen, Alberta’s Petroleum Industry and the Conservation Board (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1993), 252–84; Hanson, 93–109.
8 The purchasing power of the Canadian dollar in 1946 was 25 to 30 per cent less than it had been in 1935–40. The exchange rate affected not only the costs of importing US crude, but also the purchase of new equipment for production and distribution. The Canadian government did not lift price controls on domestic petroleum products until 1947 so Imperial and other oil importers had to absorb the gap. Ewing, ch. 20, 2–3; Larson et al., New Horizons, 561–2.
9 Imperial Oil Board of Directors, Minutes 3 Sept 1947; 8 Sept 1947; Minutes of Special Shareholder’s Meeting, 22 Sept 1947. Imperial Oil Archives, Series 1, Glenbow Archives. Ewing, ch. 20, 3–6.
10 Ewing, ch. 20, 18–20; Larson et al., 726–32.
11 Imperial Oil board of directors, minutes 16 June 1947; 7 Oct 1947. Imperial Oil Archives, Series 1. Glenbow Archives. Royalite board of directors minutes 13 Nov 1948; 17 Dec 1948; 14 Jan 1949. Royalite Archives. Glenbow Archives. Ewing, ch. 20, 24–5. “Royalite Co. Now Independent,” Western Oil Examiner, 22 Jan 1949, 1, 3; Wellington Jeffers, “Finance At Large,” Globe & Mail, 17 Jan 1949, 20. When Royalite reorganized its board it 1950, two of its new members included Allan and Samuel Bronfman, of Seagram fame.
12 “Imperial Oil Ltd. Investments in Canadian Marketing Companies,” 8 Sept 1946. Imperial Oil Archives, Acc. 80-0028, Box 005. Glenbow Archives. The General Manager of Champlain Oil in 1932–35 was Charley Trudeau, who had sold his chain of thirty service stations in Quebec, the Automobile Owners Association, to Champlain in 1932 for $1 million [CAD]. Charley’s son, Pierre, and his grandson, Justin, both became prime ministers of Canada.
13 D.L. McCarthy to the President and Directors of Imperial Oil Ltd., 26 Oct 1946; Imperial Oil board of directors, Minutes 27 Jan 1947. Imperial Oil Archives, Series 1, Glenbow Museum.
14 Memorandum re: K.C. Irving, 27 Feb 1945; Memorandum for Mr. Hewetson re: Maritime Situation, 18 Jan 1946 [This document has the intriguing heading: “To be destroyed on consummation of plan”]; Draft Agreement between Kenneth C. Irving and Imperial Oil Ltd., 1 Feb 1946. Imperial Oil Archive, Series, Acc. 80-0028, Box 005, Irving File, Glenbow Archives.
15 Douglas How and Ralph Costello, KC: The Biography of K.C. Irving (Toronto: King Porter Books, 1993), 29–31, 44–56, 140–1.
16 H.H. Hewetson, Meeting re: P.J.B.D. proposal, 22 Sept 1946. Imperial Oil Archives, Series 3, Corporate Affairs, Acc. 80-0028, Box 005, Joint Defence Board file. Glenbow Archives; Barry, 142–3.
17 “Refineries: Edmonton Refinery (1950). Imperial Oil Archives, Series, Vertical File: Refineries. Glenbow Archives; Charlton, 6.
18 Hanson, 143–7; B.H. Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 352, 282–3.
19 W.J. Davenport, “The Imperial Pipe Line,” Imperial Oil Review (January 1918): 9–10; Larson et al., New Horizons, 228–32, 744–50; Imperial Oil board, Minutes, 12 April 1946. Imperial Oil Archives, Series 1, Glenbow Archives.
20 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 250–1; Charlton, 6–7; J.D. White, Vice Pres., Imperial Oil to A.I. Levorsen, Dean of School of Mineral Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, 20 July 1949; W.O. Twaits, “Board Review of Pipe Line Status,” 24 Feb 1949; Interprovincial Pipe Line Co., First Shareholders Meeting, 6 May 1949. Imperial Oil Archives, Glenbow Archives.
21 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 250–1. O.B. Hopkins, Memorandum re: Duty and Sales Tax on Pipe Line Material, 20 May 1949; G.L. Stewart, president, Imperial Oil to Hon. C.D. Howe, Minister of Trade & Commerce, 3 Aug 1949; Howe to Stewart, 8 Aug 1949. Imperial Oil Archives, Glenbow Archives.
22 C.D. Crichton, Interprovincial Pipeline Co. to W.F. Prendergast et al., Memorandum re: Public Relations program, 18 July 1949; W.F. Prendergast to A.A. Turner, Imperial Oil Ltd., Regina, Sask., 23 June 1949. Imperial Oil Archives, Glenbow Archives.
23 Imperial Oil board, Minutes, 6 Oct 1949. Imperial Oil archives, Series 1, Glenbow Museum; Hanson, 155–8. A similar “Throughput Agreement” was made by Imperial and other Canadian oil companies in 1950 to help finance the expansion of the Portland to Montreal pipeline.
24 D. Murie, Manager, Fort William Chamber of Commerce to I.W. Mackerath, Imperial Oil Co., Fort William, 9 June 1949; “Plan for Oil Pipe Line Points to Canadian Wealth” Port Arthur News Chronicle, 27 May 1949; “Oil Pipe Line Routes,” Winnipeg Tribune, 8 Sept 1949. Imperial Oil Archive, Glenbow Archives.
25 “Canadian Shield Diverts Pipeline to Northern U.S.,” Globe & Mail, 9 Sept 1949, 9; Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 354–5.
26 Quoted in Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 254.
27 “Lakehead Groups Want Oil Pipeline Kept in Canada,” Globe & Mail, 7 Sept 1949, 2; G.L. Stewart, pres., Imperial Oil to Hewetson, 28 Sept 1949. Imperial Oil Archive, Glenbow Archives.
28 O.B. Hopkins, pres. Interprovincial Pipeline Co., to Mayor C.O. Robinson, Port Arthur, Ontario, 21 September 1947; “Oil Men Defend Pipe Line Decision,” Fort William Daily Times, 27 Sept 1949. Imperial Oil Archives, Glenbow Archives.
29 Hanson, 157–8; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 254; Hopkins to T.B. Sexton, Transit Co. Ltd., 25 May 1949; “Comparison of 50,000 B/D Movement to Sarnia via P/L and Lake Tanker versus Direct Pipeline,” 28 June 1949; J.R. White to Hon. Douglas Abbott, Minister of Finance, 23 Sept 1949. Imperial Oil Archive, Glenbow Archives.
30 L.F. Kahle to O.B. Hopkins, pres., Interprovincial Pipeline Co. 28 Oct 1949; L.F. Kahle, “Memorandum on discussion with I.N. McKinnon, Deputy Minister of Mines and Minerals and J.L. Oberholtzer, Deputy Minister of Industries and Labour, 2 Nov 1949.” Imperial Oil Archive, Glenbow Archives; “Pipeline Contracts Let Now Total $41,000,000,” Globe & Mail, 3 Nov 1949, 22.
31 “Western Oil Reaches Ontario,” Imperial Oil Review; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 256–7.
32 Charlton, 32–3.
33 Hanson, 249–64.
Chapter 8
1 Gibb and Knowlton, The Resurgent Years, 520–33; Larson et al., 150–1.
2 “Biographical Information Dr. R.K. Stratford”; “Chronology of the Technical and Research Department.” Exxon Mobil Records, General Subject Files: Research Imperial Oil, Call No. 2.207 G220. Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, University of Texas, Austin TX.
3 Ewing, ch. 11, 63–5; Larson et al., 151–2.
4 Larson et al., 153–6;
5 Ewing, ch. 11, 66–8.
6 Larson et al., 165–6; Purdy, Petroleum, 164–6.
7 Larson et al., 433–42; Wall, Teagle, 314–15; “German-Held Patents Freed to Industry,” Globe & Mail, 26 Mar 1942, 3.
8 Larson et al., 412–16, 507–13; Matthew Bellamy, Profiting the Crown: Canada’s Polymer Corporation 1942–1990 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2005), 16–21; Paul A.C. Koistinen, Arsenal of World War II: The Political Economy of American Warfare 1940–45 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 148–58.
9 Bellamy, 28-37; Cobban, Cities of Oil, 64–6, 92–8; Purdy, Petroleum, 52, 442–4.
10 Cobban, 98–100; Larson et al., New Horizons, 512; E.R. Rowzee, “Sarnia, the Birthplace of Canada’s Petro-Chemical Industry,” Chemistry and Industry, 10 Dec 1949, 864–5. Exxon Mobil Archives, Call No. 2.207/G220. Dolph Briscoe Center.
11 F.C. Lantz, “Memorandum: Outline of Scope of St. Clair’s Activities in Relation to Imperial, Standard Oil Development, and Polymer Organization,” 3 Jan 1944. Imperial Oil Archives, Acc. 80-0013, Box 3; Series, 1m-14, Box 12g. Glenbow Archives.
12 Bellamy, 65–70; Cobban, 98–104; Peter McKenzie-Brown, Gordon Jaremko, and David Finch, The Great Oil Age: The Petroleum Industry in Canada (Calgary: Detselig Enterprises Ltd., 1993), 117–18.
13 John L. Tiedje, “International Technology Transfer through a Multinational Corporation,” Address to the World Congress on Chemical Engineering, 6 Oct 1981; J.L. Livingstone, “Imperial’s Research,” 10 Feb 1981. Imperial Oil Archives, Vertical Files, Research/Glenbow Archives; Mark Nichols, “Fifty Years of Men and Ideas,” Imperial Oil Review 4 (1979): 6–13.
14 Larson et al., 768.
15 Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 175–86.
16 “The Man From Medicine Hat,” Time, 18 Feb 1974; Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 189–90; Le Riche, Alberta’s Oil Patch, 180.
17 Imperial Oil Annual Report, 1956, 9; IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 15 Dec 1955; 12 Feb 1957; 5 March 1957.
18 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 26 Nov 1959.
19 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 16 March 1961; D.A. Foster to C.S. Lindsley Re: Imperial–Redwater Fertilizer Manufacturing Project, 1 Dec 1966. Esso Chemical Canada Business Plan Studies: Notes and Correspondence. Imperial Oil Archives, Series, 1M-14-Box 15. Glenbow Archives.
20 Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 359–60; Charlton, 21–2; “Imperial Enters Petrochemical Field,” Imperial Oil Review (Dec 1955): 14; Patricia Clarke, “Made of Oil,” Imperial Oil Review 4 (1981): 18–22.
21 Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 55–6; IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 5 April 1962.
22 Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 56–7, 260. IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 19 May 1964; 21 Sept 1965; 3 Mar 1966; 17 July 1969.
23 IOL Exec. Cte., 4 March 1965. On Deuterium and Industrial Estates, see Roy George, The Life and Times of Industrial Estates Ltd. (Halifax: Dalhousie University Institute of Public Affairs, 1974), 77–8.
24 Interview with W.O. Twaits, 10 July 1979. Imperial Oil Archives.
Chapter 9
1 Robert J. Bertrand, Canada’s Oil Monopoly (Toronto: Lorimer, 1981), 589–614. This volume, an abridgement of a seven-volume government document prepared by Bertrand as part of a Combines Investigation, engendered its own controversy as the Canadian government tried, unsuccessfully, to block Lorimer from publishing it as a “commercial” book.
2 David L. Jackson, “A Study of Imperial Oil Limited,” 1964. Imperial Oil Archives, IOL pub-6-24, 18, 26.
3 Jackson, 20, 23; Bertrand, 444–53.
4 W.O. Twaits to IOL Executive Committee, 20 Apr 1955.
5 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 26 July 1955; 26 Sept 1958; 4 July 1968. Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 132–3.
6 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 3 Apr 1962.
7 “Hockey Night Across Canada,” Imperial Oil Review (March/April 1952): 12–13.
8 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 12 Sept 1953; 28 Sept 1961. J.L. Potts, “Saturday Night Hockey,” Canadian Communications Foundation, Jan 2002; Paul Patskovy, “Hockey Night in Canada—The Television Years,” Canadian Communications Foundation, Aug 2007.
9 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 8 Jan 1953; 10 Mar 1953; 22 Dec 1953.
10 IOL Exec. Cte. Mintes, 4 Jan 1962; 2 July 1963; 11 Feb 1964.
11 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 29 Apr 1971; 27 Feb 1973; 12 Sept 1975; 14 Oct 1975.
12 “Here is How Imperial Protects Its Dealers and Customers in a Price War,” IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 25 June 1959.
13 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 7 Nov 1957; 20 Mar 1958; 8 Sept 1958; 28 Mar 1959.
14 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 5 Sept 1961; 7 Sept 1972.
15 Bertrand, 91–6.
16 “A Program for Dealer Relations, 1962”; V.B. Cervin, “Analysis of Dealer Problems, 1958,” Marketing Research Dept. Acc. 80-0039, Box 27, Files 7, 8, IOL Archives.
17 Brian Brennan, The Good Steward: The Ernest C. Manning Story (Calgary: Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 2008), 88–92.
18 Breen, Alberta’s Petroleum Industry, 305.
19 Breen, Alberta’s Petroleum Industry, 312.
20 Breen, Alberta’s Petroleum Industry, 313–17; Earle Gray, document on “Prorationing” to author, 13 June 2016; “Oil Allowable for Redwater Again Discussed,” Globe & Mail, 25 Apr 1949, 30.
21 Wall, Growth in A Changing Environment, 379; IOL Exec. Cte., 11 Aug 1964; “Big Producers Win Point, Alberta Slashes Well Minimums,” Globe & Mail, 27 July 1964, 22.
22 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 15 Dec 1960.
23 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 10 Jan 1961; 17 Oct 1961.
24 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 3 Sept 1962.
25 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 24 Sept 1963; 3 Oct 1963, 1 Oct 1964.
26 Ruth Worth, “Gasoline Price Prober on Safari in 2,600,000-word Tiger Infested Jungle,” Globe & Mail, 20 July 1965, B12; IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 2 Jan 1964; 4 June 1964.
27 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 19 June 1966; George MacFarlane, “Gas Price Report Gains Approval of Imperial Oil,” Globe & Mail, 7 Apr 1966, B10.
28 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 297–330.
29 William Kilbourn, Pipeline: Transcanada and the Great Debate, A History of Business and Politics (Toronto: Clarke Irwin, 1970), 94–113; John Duffy, Fights of Our Lives: Elections, Leadership and the Making of Canada (Toronto: Harper Collins, 2002), 196–9.
30 Breen, Alberta’s Petroleum Industry, 424–5, 465–8; Riche, 80–1; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 420–1.
31 Breen, Alberta’s Petroleum Industry, 437–8; “Imperial Oil Opposes Pipeline to Montreal,” Globe & Mail, 6 May 1958, 24; Earle Gray, Forty Years in the Public Interest: A History of the National Energy Board (Toronto: Douglas & McIntyre, 2000), 9–10.
32 Ron Anderson, “Refining in Canada: Alberta Oil Seeks Wider Markets,” Globe & Mail, 7 Aug 1958, 24.
33 Gray, National Energy Board, 28–9; Tammy Nemeth, “Canada-U.S. Oil and Gas Relations 1958 to 1974,” (PhD diss., University of British Columbia, 2007), 55–65; IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 4 Mar 1959.
34 Breen, Alberta’s Petroleum Industry, 398–419; John N. McDougall, Fuels and the National Policy (Toronto: Butterworths, 1982), 90.
35 Nemeth, “Canada-U.S. Oil and Gas Relations,” 126–7; Nemeth, “Consolidating the Continental Drift: American Influence on Diefenbaker’s National Oil Policy,” Journal of Canadian History 13, no. 1 (2002): 202–3.
36 Nemeth, “Canada-U.S. Oil and Gas Relations,” 156–9; G. Bruce Doern and Glen Toner, The Politics of Energy (Toronto: Methuen, 1985), 80–2.
37 See, for example, David Crane, Controlling Interest: The Canadian Gas and Oil Stakes (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1982), 55–6; Melissa Clark-Jones, A Staple State: Canadian Industrial Resources in Cold War (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987), 42–9. For a critique see Nemeth, “Canada-U.S. Oil and Gas Relations,” 143–6.
38 Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 399–402, 425–8; George Philip, Oil and Politics in Latin America: Nationalist Movements and State Companies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 294–9.
39 Nemeth, “Canada-U.S. Oil and Gas Relations,” 156–61.
40 De Mille, Oil in Canada West, 159–60; Ewing, ch. 19; Peter A. Shulman, “The Making of a Tax Break: The Oil Depletion Allowance, Scientific Taxation and Natural Resource Policy in the Early Twentieth Century,” Journal of Policy History 23, no. 3 (June 2011): 281–322.
41 Twaits quoted in Clark-Jones, 38; Carl Nickle, Daily Oil Bulletin, 31 Dec 1957.
42 Supreme Court of Canada, Home Oil v. Minister of National Revenue, SCR 733 (10 Oct 1955).
43 “Imperial Oil Enters Tax Appeal Test Case,” Globe & Mail, 26 Sept 1957, 17; Bruce MacDonald, “4-3 Tax Ruling Costs Oil Firms $60,000,000,” Globe & Mail, 5 Oct 1960, 21; Supreme Court of Canada, Minister of National Revenue v. Imperial Oil Co. Ltd., SCR 735 (4 Oct 1960).
44 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 27 Sept 1962.
45 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 30 Oct 1962; 9 Nov 1962; 11 Dec 1962.
46 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 22 Feb 1968.
47 “B-A Urges Exploration Incentives,” Globe & Mail, 9 Nov 1963, 34; “Participation Plan,’ Globe & Mail, 11 Dec 1963, B5; “Stop Importing Tax Plans, Imperial Oil Urges Canada,’ Globe & Mail, 8 Oct 1963, B4.
48 Report of the Royal Commission on Taxation, Feb 1967, vol. 4, 322–7, 356–7. Publications.gc.ca/collections 2014; John F. Helliwell et al., “Oil and Gas Taxation,” Osgoode Hall Law Journal 26, no. 3 (Fall 1988): 455–6.
49 Kenneth Smith, “Could Have Disastrous Effects, Mining Group Says Angrily,” Globe & Mail, 27 Feb 1967, 25; “Carter Report Misguided, Deficient: Twaits,” Globe & Mail, 19 April 1967, B1; “Carter Prospects Devastating for Oil Industry, Twaits Says,” Globe & Mail, 25 May 1967, 28. Interestingly, Peter Munk, later to head Canada’s largest gold mining companies, supported the report; at the time he was heading a company called Clairtone, in the stereo equipment business.
50 Linda McQuaig, Behind Closed Doors (Markham: Penguin Books Canada, 1987), 154–8; “Position Overstated, Carter Says: Tax Report Author Backtracks on Complete Implementation,” Globe & Mail, 25 Apr 1967, B1; Ronald Anderson, “Carter Plan Dead But Gains Tax Likely Result, Economists Predict,” Globe & Mail, 21 Dec 1967.
51 “Tighter Depletion Allowances for Oil, Gas, Mining Companies,” Globe & Mail, 23 Oct 1968, B12; “Imperial Oil Profit Lower by $2 Million,” Globe & Mail, 22 Oct 1969, B7; McQuaig, 158–9.
52 Halliwell, et al., 457–8.
53 “Imperial and the Tax White Paper,” Imperial Oil Review, June 1970, 29–31; “White Paper Threat to Syncrude Stressed by Imperial Oil Head,” Globe & Mail, 9 Apr 1970, B1.
Chapter 10
1 Denis Smith, Rogue Tory: The Life and Legend of John G. Diefenbaker (Toronto: MacFarlane Walter and Ross, 1995), 224–7; John Duffy, Fights of Our Lives: Elections, Leadership and the Making of Canada (Toronto: Harper Collins, 2002), 196–9.
2 IOL Exec. Cte., Minutes, 25 July 1963; Peter Foster, The Blue Eyed Sheiks: The Canadian Oil Establishment (Toronto: Collins, 1979), 66–7.
3 Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 137–46; Charles Emmerson, The Future History of the Arctic (New York: Public Affairs Press, 2010), 177–9. As in the case of Leduc, the North Slope exploration that began in the early 1960s proved fruitless until the Prudhoe Bay discovery.
4 Quoted in Peter McKenzie Brown, Bitumen, 60; Joyce E. Hunt, Local Push, Global Pull: The Untold History of the Athabasca Oil Sands, 1910–30 (Calgary: J.E. Hunt, 2011), 269–71. The bituminous oil fields were often interchangeably designated the “tar sands” and “oil sands” in the early references up to the subject, but in the 1960s the term “oil sands” became the preferred usage in government and business circles, while environmental critics continued to use “tar sands” to highlight their views emphasizing the industry’s pollution and association with climate change, e.g., Andrew Nikiforuk, Tar Sands: Dirty Oil and the Future of a Continent (Vancouver: Greystone Books, 2010), 12–14; Tony Clarke, Tar Sands Showdown: Canada and the Politics of Oil in an Age of Climate Change (Toronto: Lorimer, 2008).
5 Hunt, 273–7.
6 Quoted in Paul Chastko, Developing Alberta’s Oil Sands: From Karl Clark to Kyoto (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2004), 1.
7 McKenzie Brown, Bitumen, 29–30, 47–8; Steve Lynett, “Digging for Oil,” Imperial Oil Review 4 (1973): 18–21.
8 McKenzie Brown, Bitumen, 77–88; Michael Pengelly, “The Enigma of the Oil Sands,” Imperial Oil Review (Apr 1960): 16–18; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 335–41.
9 Chastko, Developing Alberta’s Oil Sands, 31–45.
10 McKenzie Brown, Bitumen, 93–108; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 342–4.
11 Chastko, 81–90.
12 Brian Brennan, The Good Steward: The Ernest C. Manning Story (Calgary: Fifth House, 2008), 110–14; Chastko, 103–12; Graham D. Taylor, “Sun Oil and Great Canadian Oil Sands Ltd.: The Financing and Management of a ‘Pioneer’ Enterprise 1962–1974,” Journal of Canadian Studies 20, no. 2 (Autumn 1985): 106–8; Breen, Alberta Conservation Board, 439–40.
13 McKenzie Brown, Bitumen, 116–17.
14 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 9 July 1959; 4 Aug 1959.
15 “The Tar Sands of Alberta, Canada,” 31–5. Exxon-Mobil Archives, Box 2.207.G236. Briscoe Center, Austin Texas; Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 943, fn63.
16 Breen, Alberta Conservation Board, 447–8.
17 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 9 Mar 1959.
18 “Project Oilsand,” Alberta Energy Heritage. Alberta.ca/energyheritage/sands/mega-projects; J.R. Walker, “Oil Sands A-bomb Seen Great Danger,” Calgary Herald, 29 Jan 1959, 1.
19 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 1 Oct 1959; McKenzie Brown, Bitumen, 119.
20 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 8 Sept 1959; Nickle’s Daily Oil Bulletin, 15 Jan 1960.
21 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 14 Mar 1961; 18 July 1961; “Report on Athabasca Technical and Policy Committees,” 1 July 1, 1961. IOL Archives.
22 IOL Exec. Cte, Minutes, 2 Feb 1960, 11 Sept 1962; Pengelly, “The Enigma of Athabasca,” 15–16; “The Tar Sands of Alberta,” 30–1, 36–8.
23 Taylor, “Sun Oil,” 108–9; Breen, Alberta Conservation Board, 455–7.
24 Taylor, “Sun Oil,” 109–10; IOL Exec. Cte., 22 May 1962; 13 Jan 1963.
25 McKenzie Brown, Bitumen, 155–8; IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 4 Dec 1963; 7 Jan 1965; 19 Jan 1965.
26 Taylor, “Sun Oil,” 104.
27 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 346–7.
28 “Tar Sands of Alberta,” 68–71; IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 13 May 1966; 16 Sept 1969; “Syncrude Proposes 80,000 b/d Production from Alta. Tar sands,” Oilweek 19, no. 1 (13 May 1968): 21–2; Chastko, 127–32.
29 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 10 Dec 1968; 16 Sept 1969.
30 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 8 May 1973, 8 Aug 1973; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 350–1; David Wood, The Lougheed Legacy (Toronto: Key Porter, 1985), 112–19; Erik Lizee, “Rhetoric and Reality: Albertans and Their Oil Industry under Peter Lougheed” (MA thesis, University of Alberta, 2010), 96–7.
31 Larry Pratt, The Tar Sands: Syncrude and the Politics of Oil (Toronto: Hurtig Press, 1976); Foster, Blue Eyed Sheiks, 83–4; Lizee, 99–100.
32 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 6 Dec 1974; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Sands, 351–2; McKenzie Brown, Bitumen, 160–2; Chastko, 160–1. In 1966 Imperial, Cities Service and Richfield had diluted their Syncrude commitment to enable Royalite to increase its share to 30 per cent. Subsequently Gulf Oil of Canada (which had already taken over British American Oil Co.) absorbed Royalite.
33 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 352–3; McKenzie Brown, Bitumen, 167–8.
34 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 353–4; “Jacob Absher,” www.history.alberta.ca/energyheritage/sands.
35 Roger M. Butler, “Energy From Cold Lake,” 10 Feb 1981. IOL Archive, Vertical File, Research; “Reaching the Heavy Oil,” Imperial Oil Review 3 (1975): 27. Butler was the chief developer of the process, which was patented by Imperial in 1969. McKenzie Brown, Bitumen, 190.
36 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 7 June 1966; “Reaching the Heavy Oil,” 28–9; Steve Lynett, “Cold Lake,” Imperial Oil Review 4, 1974, 5–7; Dominion Securities, “The Heavy Oil Deposits of Western Canada,” Oct 1974, 9–11. IOL-pub-6-74.
37 Paul Murray, “Miracle at Cold Lake,” Imperial Oil Review 6 (1979): 17–19; Sandford Brown, “Wringing Oil from Sand,” The Lamp (Spring 1985): 17–18; Foster, Blue Eyed Sheiks, 86–7.
38 McKenzie Brown, Bitumen, 191–3; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 258–9; “Dr. Roger M. Butler,” www.canadianpetroleumhalloffame.ca/roger_butler.
39 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 362–4; Emmerson, The Future History of the Arctic, 172–5; J.G. Thomson, “Development of North Hampered by Muskegs,” Oilweek, 11 Dec 1959, 21–2.
40 IOL Production Department, “Notes on Northwest Territories Land Play,” IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 1 Apr 1958; Nickle’s Daily Oil Bulletin, 18 June 1961; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 364–5; Peter Foster, Other People’s Money: The Banks, the Government and Dome (Don Mills, ON: Collins, 1983), 35–7.
41 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 16 Jan 1964; 17 Apr 1964.
42 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 367–72; “Energy From the Frontiers,” Imperial Oil Review 1 (1974): 28–9; Nickle’s Daily Oil Bulletin, 30 June 1967, 3–5; IOL Exec. Cte., Minutes, 5 May 1971.
43 Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 134–5.
44 Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 135–40; Emmerson, The Future History of the Arctic, 178–9.
45 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes, 9 Apr 1970; “Energy From the Frontiers,” 29–31; J.A. Armstrong, “Notes for a Panel Discussion, N.Y. Security Analysts,” 6 Feb 1973. IOL Vertical Files, Petroleum Industry & Trade—Canadian North. Imperial Oil Archives; “The Search,” Imperial Oil Review 1 (1975): 16–19.
46 W.G. Charlton, “Imperial Oil Limited History 1950–75,” 41–2; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 402.
47 Robert Page, Northern Development: The Canadian Dilemma (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1986), 172–6; McKenzie Brown and Finch, The Great Oil Age, 91–2. Exxon moved the Glomar Beaufort Sea platform to its offshore operations near Russian Sakhalin Island in 2001.
48 Earle Gray, Unfamiliar History: Canada @150 (Toronto: Civil Sector Press, 2017), 342–57; Emmerson, 95–6. By the second decade of the twenty-first century, with Arctic warming, hundreds of vessels had travelled through the Northwest Passage.
49 IOL Exec. Cte., Minutes, 21 Aug 1969; 16 Dec 1969; Nickle’s Daily Oil Bulletin, 14 July 1969, 6; Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 385–6. The consortium’s argument about tanker safety may have been influenced by the sinking of Imperial Oil’s tanker, Arrow, off Nova Scotia in February 1970.
50 Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 376–7; Page, Northern Development, 75–88; Foster, Blue Eyed Sheiks, 112–18.
51 Page, Northern Development, 155–65.
52 IOL Exec. Cte., Minutes, 25 June 1974; 4 Mar 1975; Foster, Blue Eyed Sheiks, 120–1.
53 IOL Exec. Cte., Minutes, 18 July 1972.
54 Page, Northern Development, 66–8; Foster, Blue Eyed Sheiks, 116.
55 Page, Northern Development, 103–21.
56 Charlton, “Imperial Oil History 1950–75,” 38–9; Earle Gray, Forty Years in the Public Interest: A History of the National Energy Board (Toronto: Douglas & McIntyre, 2000), 66–70; Page, Northern Development, 124–54.
57 Earle Gray, National Energy Board, 71–4; Page, Northern Development, 268–81. The energy crises and the National Energy Program are discussed in chapter 11.
58 Foster, Blue Eyed Sheiks, 67–9, 212–13.
59 Sean Kheraj, “An Environmental History of the Hearings on the Norman Wells Pipeline in the 1980s,” Riley Fellowship Lecture, University of Winnipeg, 27 Oct 2017.
60 Page, Northern Development, 230–5; Robert Bone and Robert Mahnic, “Norman Wells: The Oil Center of the Northwest Territories,” Arctic 37, no. 1 (March 1984): 55–7; Nickle’s Daily Oil Bulletin, 17 May 1985.
61 Robert Huston and Ashish George Sam, ”The Mackenzie Valley Pipeline.” www.utexas.edu/energy.com/thinkcorner/Mackenzie.
62 Jason Unrau et al., “Timeline: The Mackenzie Valley Saga,” Globe & Mail, 30 Dec 2009; 23 Aug 2012; “Trans Canada and Exxon Mobil to Work Together On Alaska Pipe Line Project,” 11 June 2009. www.transcanada.com/announcements.
63 Jeffrey Jones, “Imperial Oil weighs Mackenzie gas project revamp,” Globe & Mail, 18 Oct 2013; Lauren Krugel, “Imperial Oil Seeks Sunset-Clause Extension for Mackenzie Gas Project,” Globe & Mail, 27 Aug 2015; “Mackenzie Gas Project Extended,” Oil & Gas Journal, 3 June 2016; Joseph A. Pratt and William E. Hale, Exxon: Transforming Energy 1973–2005 (Austin: University of Texas Dolph Briscoe Center, 2013), 490–1.
64 Guy Quenneville, CBC News, “Imperial Oil to Suspend Norman Wells Oil Production Due to Continuing Pipeline Shutdown,” 26 Jan 2017; Gary Park, “Adieu to Norman Wells,” Petroleum News 21, no. 38 (18 Sept 2016).
Chapter 11
1 Daniel Yergin, The Prize, 244–68; Mira Wilkins, The Maturing of Multinational Enterprise, 238–41; William R. Childs, The Texas Railroad Commission: Understanding Regulation to the Mid-Twentieth Century (College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2005), 199–228; William R. McNally, Crude Volatility: The History and Future of Boom-Bust Oil Prices (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017), 67–112.
2 Wilkins, Maturing of Multinational Enterprise, 365–70; Yergin, The Prize, 563–87; Robert Fitzgerald, The Rise of the Global Company, 386–97.
3 Yergin, The Prize, 588–632; Andrew Scott Cooper, The Oil Kings (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), 137–68.
4 Yergin, The Prize, 674–98, 711–14; McNally, Crude Volatility, 123–44.
5 McNally, Crude Volatility, 145–59; Randall, United States Foreign Oil Policy, 295–318.
6 McNally, Crude Volatility, 160–9; Yergin, The Quest: Energy, Security, and the Remaking of the Modern World (New York: Penguin Press, 2011), 285–311.
7 McNally, Crude Volatility, 170–224; Yergin, The Quest, 327–45.
8 Steve Coll, Private Empire: Exxon Mobil and American Power (New York: Penguin Books, 2013), 51–5, 157–70, 452–67.
9 Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 12–22, 310–61; Yergin, The Quest, 84–107.
10 Gray, National Energy Board, 58–9, Appendix B; “Western Canadian Select Explained,” Oil Sands Magazine, 20 Feb 2016; Kevin McCormack, “Canadian Oil and Gas Production: Older Than the Country Itself,” BOE Report, 17 Oct 2016.
11 Paul Sabin, “Crisis and Continuity in U.S. Oil Politics, 1965–80,” Journal of American History 99, no. 1 (June 2012): 177–86; Randall, United States Foreign Oil Policy, 260–5; Robert Sherrill, The Oil Follies of 1970–80 (New York: Anchor Press, 1983), 77–8.
12 Peter Foster, Self Serve (Toronto: MacFarlane Walter & Ross, 1992), 39–53; Nemeth, “Canada-U.S. Oil and Gas,” 261–73. The EMR was established in 1966 but expanded its role, at the expense of the NEB, during the Trudeau era.
13 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 442–5.
14 “Energy Statement by Donald MacDonald, Nov. 1, 1973,” Nickle’s Daily Oil Bulletin, 8 Nov 1973.
15 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 445–8; John English, Just Watch Me: The Life of Pierre Elliott Trudeau, volume 2 (Toronto: Knopf Canada, 2009), 231–2, 240.
16 IOL Exec. Cte. Minutes 3 Jan 1974; 15 Jan 1974; Aug. 13, 1974; Nemeth, “Canada- U.S. Oil and Gas,” 275–81; Gray, National Energy Board, 52–4.
17 Quoted in Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 386.
18 “Ten Year Financial and Operating Summary, 1966–75,” IOL Annual Report 1976, 20.
19 Foster, Self Serve, 57–63; John Fossum, Oil, the State and Federalism: The Rise and Demise of Petro Canada as a Statist Impulse (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), 73–84.
20 Fossum, 99–100; Helliwell et al., “Oil and Gas Taxation,” Osgoode Hall Law Journal 26, no. 3 (Fall 1988): 463–4.
21 English, 482.
22 Gray, National Energy Board, 60–1; Peter Foster, The Sorcerer’s Apprentices (Toronto: Collins, 1982), 143–50; G. Bruce Doern, The Politics of Energy (Toronto: Methuen, 1985), ch. 6.
23 Doern, 207–9; Foster, Sorcerer’s Apprentices, 158–9; Helliwell et al., “Oil and Gas Taxation,” 467–8.
24 Geoffrey Stevens, “The Politics of Energy,” Globe & Mail, 20 Nov 1980, 6; Jeff Carruthers, “Imperial Oil Stops Judy Creek Project Because of Federal Pricing Plan,” Globe & Mail, 1 Dec 1980, B1; Anthony McCallum, “Imperial Oil Sees Need to Adapt to Energy Rules,” Globe & Mail, 6 Jan 1981, B2.
25 Doern, 210–11; English, 488–92; Andrew Brown, “IPAC Members React Strongly to National Energy Policy,” Nickle’s Daily Oil Bulletin, 7 Nov 1980; “Trudeau, Lougheed Sign Five Year Agreement,” Nickle’s Daily Oil Bulletin, 2 Sept 1981.
26 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 450–4; Tammy Nemeth, “Pat Carney and the Dismantling of the National Energy Program,” Past Imperfect 7, 1998: 87–123.
27 IOL Annual Report 1981, 44–5; IOL Annual Report 1986, 42–3.
28 IOL Annual Report 1981, 46–7; “Imperial Oil Limited—Historical Highlights 1978 –86. IOL Public Affairs and Secretary’s Department, IOL Archives, Acc. 80-0074/001(01).
29 Gillian Steward, “The Age of Imperialism Comes to an End,” Canadian Business, August 1982, 61–71; Foster, The Sorcerer’s Apprentices, 257–9.
30 Foster, Sorcerer’s Apprentices, 254; “Imperial Oil—Historical Highlights 1978–86”; Rinaldo Stefan, “Report on Imperial Oil Ltd.” 1996. IOL-pub-6-157. IOL Archives. See Appendix 3B.
Chapter 12
1 Canada Bureau of Competition Policy, The State of Competition in the Canadian Petroleum Industry, volume 1: Findings, Issues and Remedies (Ottawa: Bureau of Competition Policy, 1981), 16–33.
2 “Major Oil Companies Issue Denials of Conspiracy to Fix 1970s Prices,” Globe & Mail, 5 Mar 1981, 8; “Oil Firms Profited from Tax, PC Says,” Globe & Mail, 13 Mar 1981, 10.
3 James Lorimer, ed., Canada’s Oil Monopoly (Toronto: James Lorimer & Company, 1981)
4 William Johnson, “Executives Take Stand in Oil Combines Case,” Globe & Mail, 22 Apr 1975, 8; “Oil Price Fixing Investigation Nears End,” Globe & Mail, 17 Dec 1976, 8; Edward Clifford, “‘Invisible’ Combines Watchdog Turns Media Star,” Globe & Mail, 19 Mar 1979, B5.
5 Robert Stephens, “Oil Giants’ Control of Supply under Fire,” Globe & Mail, 20 Oct 1981, 2; Stephens, “Chairman Denies Ottawa Managing Oil Industry Probe,” Globe & Mail, 1 Dec 1981, 19; Jennifer Lewington, “Combines Investigation Distorted, Imperial says,” Globe & Mail, 8 Sept 1982, 8.
6 Christopher Waddell, “Ottawa Proposes New Bill to Alter Competition Laws,” Globe & Mail, 18 Dec 1985, B1; Moya K. Mason, “From Mackenzie King’s 1923 Combines Investigation Act to the Competition Act of 1986,” www.moyak.com/papers/combines-investigation-act.
7 Canada’s Oil Monopoly, 4.
8 Foster, Blue Eyed Sheiks, 64–5.
9 Yves Lavigne, “Exxon-Imperial Pact on Technology is Bleeding the Country Dry: Broadbent,” Globe & Mail, 22 Nov 1980, A13. Broadbent’s charges were based on material from James Laxer, The Big, Tough Expensive Job: Imperial Oil and the Canadian Economy (Montreal: Press Porcepic, 1976), x.
10 Paul Taylor, “Imperial’s Exxon Ties Held Benefit Not Drain,” Globe & Mail, 27 March 1981, B2; “The Myth of Foreign Control,” Imperial Oil Review (June 1964).
11 Gibb and Knowlton, The Resurgent Years, 617–21; Larson et al., New Horizons, 20–1, 32–4.
12 Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 65–70.
13 Lyman H. Fraser, Assistant General Secretary, IOL, to Prof. A.E. Safarian, University of Saskatchewan, 4 Oct 1960. IOL Archives, Acc. 80.0079/001 (01); Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 72, 943; Foster, The Sorcerer’s Apprentices, 238–42.
14 “Imperial Oil Limited and Consolidated Subsidiaries Financial Review: Twenty Year Statistics,” IOL archives, Series 4, Box 292A, Acc. 80-0021; Ten Year Financial Operating Summary, IOL Annual Report 1976, 20–1.
15 Larson et al., New Horizons, 465–7; Ewing, ch. 20, 72–3.
16 Larson et al., New Horizons, 723–4.
17 Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 392; Nicholas Lemann, “So You Want to be Chairman of Exxon?” Texas Monthly, Dec 1978, www.texasmonthly.com/arti cles; “The Long-Term View from the 29th Floor,” Time, 29 Dec 1967.
18 R. Kelland, “Claiming Their Ground: Three Pioneering Women in Their Profession,” 19 Oct 2006. albertashistoricplaces.com.
19 IOL Annual Report, 2013, 6; Foster, The Sorcerer’s Apprentices, 248–53.
20 Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 217–25; IOL Annual Report 1990, 28–9.
21 Thomas Petzinger Jr., Oil and Honor: The Texaco-Pennzoil Wars (1988).
22 Sean McCarthy, “Texaco Canada May Play Key Role in U.S. Plan,” Globe & Mail, 16 Dec 1987, B9; Leonard Zehr, “Sale Could Make Texaco Canada Hot Stock,” Globe & Mail, 17 Sept 1988, B2.
23 Leonard Zehr and Martin Middlestaedt, “Imperial Wins Bidding for Texaco Canada,” Globe & Mail, Jan. 18, 1989, B1.
24 John Kohut, “Imperial-Texaco Takeover Stalled,” Globe & Mail, May 12, 1989, B1; Clyde Graham, “Texaco Takeover Faces Opposition before Tribunal,” Globe & Mail, Aug. 1, 1989, B5; Drew Fagan, “Tribunal Allows Texaco Deal, “Globe & Mail, Feb. 17, 1990, B1.
25 Deirdre McMurdy, “Imperial Shareholders Still Steaming,” Globe & Mail, 25 Apr 1990, B1; Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 368–9, 554; Stefan, “Report on Imperial Oil,” 1996.
26 Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 369–70; IOL, Annual Report 2013.
Chapter 13
1 Quoted in Chris J. Magoc, “Reflections on the Public Interpretation of Regional Environmental History in Western Pennsylvania,” Public Historian 36, no. 3 (Aug 2014): 59.
2 Cobban, Cities of Oil, 15,17, 24–5.
3 Quoted in Brian Black, Petrolia: The Landscape of America’s First Oil Boom (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 65.
4 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 352–3.
5 Hugh S. Gorman, Redefining Efficiency: Pollution Concerns, Regulatory Mechanisms and Technological Change in the U.S. Petroleum Industry (Akron: University of Akron Press, 2001), 162–3; “Ending Oil Gushers—BOP,” American Oil & Gas History, www.aogh.org/technology.
6 David Finch, “The History of the Conservation Board,” Alberta Oil Magazine, 29 July 2008; Breen, Conservation Board, 645–7.
7 David Breen, “Atlantic No. 3 Disaster: From Raging Inferno to ‘Beacon of Promise,’” in Anthony Rasporich, ed., Harm’s Way: Disasters in Western Canada (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2004), 157–75.
8 Jamie Benidickson, “The Evolution of Canadian Water Law and Policy: Securing Safe and Sustainable Abundance,” Water Policy History 13, no. 1 (2017): 73–4.
9 “Control of Industrial Pollution in the Sarnia Area,” IOL-pub-6-16. Acc. 628.509713. Imperial Oil Archives; Cobban, Cities of Oil, 93, 111–12.
10 “On the Rocks: Shipwrecks of Nova Scotia,” Maritime Museum of the Atlantic, Halifax, NS, novascotia.com/museum/wrecks/shipwrecks.
11 Mac MacKay, “Imperial Oil Tankers—Part I: Imperial Quebec,” Shipfax, 28 Apr 2015. Shipfax.blogspot.ca/2015/imperial-oil-tankers-part1; Wall, Growth in a Changing Environment, 381–2.
12 IOL Executive Committee, Minutes, 17 Feb 1970, 3 Mar 1970; Brenda Large, “Costs from Arrow Cleanup Are Hard to Recover, Lawyers Say,” Globe & Mail, 27 July 1970, 3.
13 “Jamieson Criticizes Businesses for Irresponsibility on Pollution,” Globe & Mail, 14 Mar 1970, 2.
14 Joseph Pratt, “Letting the Grandchildren Do It: Environmental Planning during the Ascent of Oil as a Major Energy Source,” Public Historian 2, no. 4 (Summer 1980): 43–50.
15 Dimitry Anastakis, “A ‘War on Pollution?’ Canadian Responses to the Automotive Emissions Problem, 1970–1980,” Canadian Historical Review 90, no. 1 (Mar 2009): 99–137.
16 IOL Executive Committee, 22 Dec 1970: “Motor Gas Lead Elimination Studies”; IOL Executive Committee Minutes, 18 July 1970.
17 David R. Boyd, Unnatural Law: Rethinking Canadian Environmental Law and Policy (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2003), 31–2, 97.
18 Sean Kheraj, “Manifold Destiny: A History of Oil Pipelines in Canada,” unpublished lecture, Riley Lectures on Canadian History, University of Winnipeg, 26 Oct 2017, 16.
19 Chastko, 161–3; McKenzie Brown, Bitumen, 215–24; Canadian Energy Research Institute, Oil Sands Environmental Impacts: Study #143 (Calgary 2014), 3–4; John Cotter, “Environmental Health Risks of Oil Sands Likely Underestimated: Study,” Globe & Mail, 3 Feb 2014.
20 CERI, Oil Sands Environmental Impacts, 5–6; John Cotter, “Environmental Health Risks of Oil Sands Likely Underestimated: Study,” Globe & Mail, 3 Feb 2014; Kelly Cryderman, “CNRL Ordered to Drain a Lake in Alberta, Stop Oil Spill,” Globe & Mail, 24 Sept 2013.
21 Boyd, 80–94; Yergin, The Quest, 493–525.
22 Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 461–6; Steve Coll, Private Empire: Exxon Mobil and American Power (New York: Penguin Press, 2012), 79–92.
23 Neela Banerjee et al., “Exxon: The Road Not Taken,” Inside Climate News, 2015, 4–6.
24 Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 185.
25 Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 219–22; Tom Bower, Oil: Money, Politics and Power in the 21st Century (New York: Grand Central Publishing, 2009), 161–2.
26 Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 471–6; Coll, Private Empire, 594–8.
27 Alex D. Charpentier et al., “Understanding the Canadian Oil Sands Industry’s Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” Environmental Research Letter 4 (2009): 1–2; Jacob G. Englander et al., “Historical Trends in Greenhouse Gas Emissions of the Alberta Oil Sands (1970–2010),” Environmental Research Letter 8 (2013): 1–2; John P. Giesy et al., “Alberta Oil Sands Development,” Publications of the [U.S.] National Academy of Science, 19 Jan 2010, 951–2. www. pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0912880107.
28 Imperial Oil, “Review of Environmental Protection Activities for 1978–1979,” 1–2. IOLpub-6-117; Robert Peterson, “A Cleaner Canada,” Imperial Oil Review (Summer 1998): 29. These documents were cited in Brendan DeMelle and Kevin Grandia, “‘There Is No Doubt’: Exxon Knew CO2 Pollution Was a Global Threat by the Late 1970s,” www.desmogblog/com/2016/04/26.
29 Philip Hope, “No Kudos for Kyoto from Imperial Oil,” Alberta Report 25, issue 50, 30 Nov 1998.
30 David Ebner, “Imperial Oil’s Kearl Project Gets Green Light,” Globe & Mail, 1 Mar 2007, B5; Ebner, “Imperial Suffers Kearl Defeat,” Globe & Mail, 15 May 2018, B1; Bruce Marsh, “Technology Holds the Key to Responsible Oil Sands Development,” Imperial Oil Review (Winter 2010): 4–5.
31 McKenzie-Brown, Bitumen, 171–2; Shawn McCarthy, “Big Oil Makes Case for Carbon-Capture Subsidies,” Globe & Mail, 9 Nov 2009, B4.
32 Kelly Cryderman, “Imperial Turns Off Taps on New Growth Opportunities,” Globe & Mail, 18 July 2018, B1.
33 “Imperial Oil Moving Head Office to Calgary: Report,” Globe & Mail, 29 Sept 2004, A6. Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 256–9.
Conclusion
1 William N. Greene, “Strategies of Major Oil Companies,” ch. 3, 2–21; Grant and Thille, “Tariffs, Strategy and Structure: Competition and Collusion in the Ontario Petroleum Industry,” 392–413.
2 Jeffry A. Frieden, Global Capitalism (New York: Norton, 2006), 2–20; Geoffrey Jones, Multinationals and Global Capitalism (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2005), 18–22.
3 Robert Fitzgerald, The Rise of the Global Company (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 44–54; Mira Wilkins, The History of Foreign Investment in the United States 1914–1945 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 8.
4 Michael Bliss, “Canadianizing American Business: The Roots of the Branch Plant,” in Ian Lumsden, ed., Close the 49th Parallel, etc.: The Americanization of Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1972), 26-42; Kenneth Norrie and Douglas Owram, A History of the Canadian Economy (Toronto: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1991), 293–5.
5 Greene, ch. 3, 22–6; Grant and Thille, “How Standard Oil Came to Canada: The Monopolization of Petroleum Refining, 1886–98,” 4–5; Ewing, “History of Imperial Oil,” ch. 4.
6 James May, “The Story of Standard Oil Co. v. United States,” in Eleanor M. Fox and Daniel A. Crane, ed., Antitrust Stories (New York: Foundation Press, 2007), 1–59; Daniel Yergin, The Prize, 96–113.
7 Wall and Gibb, Teagle of Jersey Standard, chs 6, 11; Greene, ch. 4, 2–18; Stephen Randall, United States Foreign Oil Policy, 13–44.
8 Ewing, ch. 20; Larson et al., The History of Standard Oil (New Jersey): New Horizons, 619, 809–10.
9 Ewing, ch. 10; Larson, 584, 619.
10 Gray, Great Canadian Oil Patch, 137–8; Aubrey Kerr, Corridors of Time (Calgary: S.A. Kerr, 1988), 108–9.
11 Robert Bothwell, Canada and the United States (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992), 28–34.
12 Clark-Jones, A Staple State, 58–64; Nemeth, “Consolidating the Continental Drift,” 191–215.
13 See Appendix 2.
14 Earle Gray, “John Kenneth Jamieson,” The Canadian Encyclopedia, 20 Sept 2007. www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca.
15 See chapter 12.
16 Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 223.
17 Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 185.
18 Yergin, The Prize, 715–16; Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 185–214.
19 Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 310–61; Coll, Private Empire, 154–93, 349–70; Yergin, The Quest, 33–5.
20 Yergin, The Quest, 93–9; Fitzgerald, Rise of the Global Company, 471–3.
21 Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 238–40, 447–8.
22 Pratt and Hale, Exxon, 448.
23 Coll, Private Empire, 544–9.
24 Bradley Olson, “Exxon, Once a ‘Perfect Machine,’ is Running Dry,” Wall Street Journal, 13 July 2018.
25 www.http.oilprice.com/oil-price-charts.