Notes

Notes to Introduction

1  Robert Alexander, The Bolivian National Revolution (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1958); Richard Patch, “Bolivia: The Restrained Revolution.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 334: I (1961); Dwight Heath, Charles Erasmus, and Hans Buechler. Land Reform and Social Revolution in Bolivia (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., 1969); and James Malloy, Bolivia: The Uncompleted Revolution (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1970).

2  Malloy, Bolivia, 197.

3  Malloy, 203.

4  Alan Knight, “The Domestic Dynamics of the Mexican and Bolivian Revolutions Compared.” In Merilee Grindle and Pilar Domingo, eds. Proclaiming Revolution: Bolivia in Comparative Perspective (Harvard and London: DRCLAS and ILAS, 2003): 55.

5  “In 1966–7 there was certainly sympathy for the strategy of armed struggle on the Bolivian Left, and this had been true in 1959–60. However, it was one thing to be in solidarity with Cuba, and quite another to adopt a distinct and foreign experience as a model for revolutionary change ‘at home’.” James Dunkerley, “The Bolivian Revolution at 60: Politics and Historiography.” Journal of Latin American Studies, no. 45, (2013): 335.

6  Dunkerley, “The Bolivian Revolution,” 338.

7  Herbert Klein, Revolution and the Rebird of Inequality: A Theory Applied to the National Revolution in Bolivia (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1981); and, Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society (New York, Oxford University Press, 1982); Jerry Ladman, ed. Modern-Day Bolivia: Legacy of the Revolution and Prospects for the Future (Tempe, Arizona: Arizona State University, Center for Latin American Studies, 1982); James Dunkerley, Rebellion in the Veins: Political Struggle in Bolivia, 1952–82 (London: Verso, 1984); and James Malloy and Eduardo Gamarra. Revolution and Reaction: Bolivia, 1964–1985 (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, Inc., 1988).

8  Klein, Bolivia, 235.

9  Dunkerley, Rebellion in the Veins, 69.

10  Dunkerley, 116.

11  Silvia Rivera, Oprimidos, pero no vencidos: luchas del campesinado aymara y qhechwa de Bolivia, 1900–1980 (La Paz: Hisbol/CSUTCB, 1984). Some years later, Rivera’s book was translated to English, “Oppressed but not Defeated”: Peasants Struggles among the Aymara and Qhechwa in Bolivia, 1900–1980 (Geneva: UNRISD, 1987).

12  Rivera, “Oppressed but not Defeated,” 5.

13  Xavier Albó, “From MNRistas to Kataristas to Katari.” In Resistance, Rebellion, and Consciousness in the Andean Peasant World, 18th to 20th Centuries, edited by Steve J. Stern (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987).

14  Brooke Larson, Colonialism and Agrarian Transformation in Bolivia: Cochabamba, 1550–1900 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988).

15  Brooke Larson, “Casta y clase: la formación de un campesinado mestizo y mercantil en la región de Cochabamba.” Allpanchis, no. 35–36 (1990); and “Dimensiones históricas de la dinámica económica del campesinado contemporáneo en la región de Cochabamba.” In Explotación agraria y resistencia campesina, edited by Brooke Larson (La Paz: CERES, 1983).

16  The demographic consequences of mestizaje in Upper Peru and in the valley of Cochabamba are addressed in Nicolás Sánchez-Albornoz, Indios y tributos en el Alto Perú (Lima: IEP, 1978); and José M. Gordillo and Robert Jackson, “Mestizaje y proceso de parcelación en la estructura agraria de Cochabamba: El caso de Sipe Sipe en los siglos XVIII–XIX.” Hisla, no. 10 (1987). Its social, ethnic, mercantile, and cultural effects are analyzed in Larson, Colonialism and Agrarian Transformation; and “Casta y clase,”; Brooke Larson and Rosario León, “Markets, Power, and the Politics of Exchange in Tapacarí, c. 1780 and 1980.” In Ethnicity, Markets, and Migration in the Andes: At the Crossroads of History and Anthropology, edited by Brooke Larson, Olivia Harris, and Enrique Tandeter (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995); and José M. Gordillo, “La región de Cochabamba desde una perspectiva ilustrada. El programa del Intendente Francisco de Viedma a fines del siglo XVIII.” Decursos 2, no. 4 (1993). Its political consequences in Scarlett O’Phelan, Rebellions and Revolts in Eighteenth Century Peru and Upper Peru (Cologne: Böhlau, 1985).

17  Merilee Grindle and Pilar Domingo, eds. Proclaiming Revolution: Bolivia in Comparative Perspective (Harvard and London: DRCLAS and ILAS, 2003); Forrest Hylton and Sinclair Thomson. Revolutionary Horizons: Past and Present in Bolivian Politics (London: Verso, 2007); and James Dunkerley, Bolivia: Revolution and the Power of History in the Present (London: Institute for the Study of the Americas, 2007).

18  Robert Gildner, “Indomestizo Modernism: National Development and Indigenous Integration in Post-revolutionary Bolivia, 1952–1964.” (PhD dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin, 2012).

19  Brooke Larson, “Revisiting Bolivian Studies: Reflections on Theory, Scholarship, and Activism since 1980.” Latin American Research Review, 54 (2), (2019): 294–309. From the total number of items listed in the references, roughly 23 percent focused on indigenous altiplano societies, while only 2 percent on campesino valley societies.

20  José M. Gordillo, Arando en la historia: La experiencia política campesina en Cochabamba (La Paz: Plural Editores, 1998).

21  Sinforoso Rivas, Los hombres de la revolución: memorias de un líder campesino (La Paz: CERES/Plural Editores, 2000).

22  José M. Gordillo, Campesinos revolucionarios en Bolivia: identidad, territorio y sexualidad en el Valle Alto de Cochabamba, 1952–1964 (La Paz: Promec/Universidad de la Cordillera/Plural Editores/CEP UMSS, 2000).

23  Laura Gotkowitz, A Revolution for Our Rights: Indigenous Struggles for Land and Justice in Bolivia, 1880–1952 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2007).

24  See Dunkerley, “The Bolivian Revolution,” 341.

25  Carmen Solíz, “‘Land to the Original Owners’: Rethinking the Indigenous Politics of the Bolivian Agrarian Reform.” Hispanic American Historical Review 97, n. 2 (2017): 259–296; and, Fields of Revolution: Agrarian Reform Rural State Formation, 1935–1964 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2021).

26  Bridgette Werner, “To Make Rivers of Blood Flow: Agrarian Reform, Rural Warfare, and State Expansion in Post-Revolutionary Bolivia, 1952–1974.” PhD dissertation, The University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2018; and, “Between Autonomy and Acquiescence: Negotiating Rule in Revolutionary Bolivia, 1953–1958.” Hispanic American Historical Review 100: 1, February (2020): 93–122.

27  Sarah Hines, “Dividing the Waters: How Power, Property, and Protest Transformed the Waterscape of Cochabamba, Bolivia (1879–2000).” PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 2015; and, “The Power and Ethics of Vernacular Modernism: The Misicuni Dam Project in Cochabamba, Bolivia, 1944–2017.” Hispanic American Historical Review 98:2 (2018): 223–256, and Water for All. Community, Property, and Revolution in Modern Bolivia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2021).

28  Researchers emphasize the experience of marginalized social and political actors in the process of modernization in Latin America and call to decentralize the role of the state when exploring aspects related to power in extra institutional levels. See Gilbert Joséph, Catherine LeGrand, and Ricardo Donato Salvatore, eds., Close Encounters of Empire: Writing the Cultural History of U.S.-Latin American Relations (Durham: Duke University Press,1998); Joséph and Nugent, eds., Everyday Forms of State Formation: Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico (Durham: Duke University Press, 1994); Aviva Chomsky and Aldo Lauria-Santiago, eds. Identity and Struggle at the Margins of the Nation-State: The Laboring Peoples of Central America and the Hispanic Caribbean (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998); Gilbert Joséph, In from the Cold: Latin America’s New Encounter with the Cold War (Durham: Duke University Press, 2008); David Maybury-Lewis, ed. The Politics of Ethnicity: Indigenous Peoples in Latin America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002); Gabriela Soto, Jungle laboratories: Mexican peasants, national projects, and the making of the Pill (Durham: Duke University Press, 2009); and Raúl Madrid, The Rise of Ethnic Politics in Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

29  See James Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); and The Moral Economy of the Peasant Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976).

30  Jeffrey Rubin, Decentering the Regime: Ethnicity, Radicalism, and Democracy in Juchitán, Mexico (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997); Daniel Nugent, Spent Cartridges of Revolution: An Anthropological History of Namiquipa, Chihuahua (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993); and Ana Maria Alonso, Thread of Blood: Colonialism, Revolution, and Gender on Mexico’s Northern Frontier (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1995).

31  Christopher Boyer, Becoming Campesinos. Politics, Identity, and Agrarian Struggle in Post-revolutionary Michoacán (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003)

32  Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), Joan Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), and William Roseberry, “Hegemony and the Language of Contention.” In Everyday Forms of State Formation: Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico, edited by G. M. Joséph and Daniel Nugent, (Durham: Duke University Press, 1994): 355–366.

33  Jerry Knudson, Bolivia. Press and Revolution, 1932–1964 (Lanham: University Press of America, 1986).

Notes to Chapter 1

1  Larson, Colonialism and Agrarian Transformation, 13–31.

2  Nathan Wachtel, “Los mitimas del valle de Cochabamba: La política de colonización de Wayna Capac,” Historia Boliviana 1, no. 1 (1981).

3  José M. Gordillo and Mercedes del Río. La visita de Tiquipaya (1573): análisis etno-demográfico de un padrón toledano (Cochabamba: CERES/UMSS, 1993): 27.

4  John Hemming. The Conquest of the Incas (Boston: Mariner Books/Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2012).

5  José M. Gordillo and Robert Jackson, “Formación, crisis y transformación de la estructura agraria de Cochabamba: El caso de la hacienda Paucarpata y de la comunidad del Passo, 1538–1645 y 1872–1929.” Revista de Indias, no. 199, vol. LIII (1993); and Raimundo Schramm, “Mosaicos etnohistóricos del valle de Cliza (Valle Alto Cochabambino), siglo XVI.” Historia y Cultura, no. 18 (1990).

6  Larson, Colonialism and Agrarian Transformation, 31–50 and Josep Barnadas. Charcas: orígenes históricos de una sociedad colonial, 1535–1565 (La Paz: CIPCA, 1973).

7  David Cook, ed. Tasa de la visita general de Francisco de Toledo (Lima: UNSM, 1975).

8  Robert Jackson. Regional Markets and Agrarian Transformation in Bolivia: Cochabamba, 1539–1960 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994): 26.

9  In Sipe Sipe, the main ayllus were Soras, Yungas, Cotas, Chichas, Cavis, Urus, and Chuyes. In Passo, Chichas, Urus, Soras, Charcas, Cara Caras, Yamparaes. In Tiquipaya, Carangas, Quillacas, Charcas, Collas, and two ayllus from the Cuzco area: Chiles and Chilques. See Larson, Colonialism and Agrarian Transformation, 39; and, Gordillo and Del Rio, La visita de Tiquipaya, 39–43.

10  Larson, Colonialism and Agrarian Transformation, 72–74.

11  Toledo’s policies regarding the mita have striking similarities to Wayna Capac’s mit’a policies in Cochabamba. It was due to the influence and ethnographic expertise of Polo de Ondegardo—Toledo’s personal adviser—that the viceroy decided to replicate in Potosi previous Inca policies in Cochabamba.

12  Larson, 89–91 and Jackson, Regional Markets, 39–43.

13  José M. Gordillo, “El origen de la hacienda en el Valle Bajo de Cochabamba: Conformación de la estructura agraria (1500–1700).” (Bachellor’s thesis, Universidad Mayor de San Simón, 1987).

14  José M. Gordillo and Robert Jackson, “Formación, crisis y transformación de la estructura agraria de Cochabamba: El caso de la hacienda Paucarpata y de la comunidad del Passo, 1538–1645 y 1872–1929.” Revista de Indias, no. 199, vol LIII (1993): 732. Similar fraudulent practices were common in Huamanga (Peru); Spanish local authorities and Lucana’s curacas colluded to embellish money from the caja de comunidad in 1578. See Steve Stern, Peru’s Indian Peoples and the Challenge of Spanish Conquest: Huamanga to 1640 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982): 96.

15  José M. Gordillo, “El proceso de extinción del yanaconaje en el valle de Cochabamba: Análisis de un padrón de yanaconas (1692).” Estudios-UMSS no. 2 (1988).

16  Jackson, Regional Markets, 34, and Gordillo and Jackson, “Formación, crisis y transformación,” 751.

17  Larson, Colonialism and Agrarian Transformation, 100.

18  Larson, 111.

19  Francisco de Viedma. Descripción geográfica y estadística de la provincia de Santa Cruz de la Sierra [1788]. Tercera edición (Cochabamba: Los Amigos del Libro, 1969).

20  Larson, Colonialism and Agrarian Transformation, 175.

21  Viedma, Descripción geográfica, 202 and 84.

22  Gordillo, “La región de Cochabamba,” 67.

23  Between 1878 to 1900, Sipe Sipe, Passo, and Tiquipaya, sold their communal lands. Farmers, artisans, merchants, and professionals bought 74% of communal lands, while landowners bought only 10%. Regarding the extension of the plots, 1,650 were within the range of 0–9.99 hectares (0–24.6 acres), while 19 were between 10–100+ hectares (24.7–247+ acres). In the lower extreme, 1,436 plots (86%) were smaller than one hectare (2.4 acres). Jackson, Regional Markets, 58 and 76. See also Gustavo Rodríguez, “Entre reformas y contrarreformas: las comunidades indígenas en el Valle Bajo Cochabambino (1825–1900).” In La construcción de una región: Cochabamba y su historia, siglos XIX–XX, edited by Gustavo Rodríguez Ostria (Cochabamba: UMSS, 1995).

24  Censo general de la población de la República de Bolivia, (1904).

25  Between 1900 to 1950, the total number of rural properties in Cochabamba grew from 35,550 to 57,597, a 162% increase. However, rural property fragmentation in the valley area was extreme; in the Valle Alto there was a 396% increase; in the Valle Bajo a 265%; and, in the Sacaba Valley a 202% increase. Jackson, Regional Markets, 139, 168, 175, and 179.

26  Antonio Mitre, Los patriarcas de la plata: Estructura socioeconómica de la minería boliviana en el siglo XIX (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1981).

27  Jackson, Regional Markets, 137.

28  Colonos provided labor for working on the hacienda demesne; transporting product to the regional market fairs; and, rendering personal service (pongueaje) to the hacienda owner. See Robert Jackson, “Evolución y persistencia del colonaje en las haciendas de Cochabamba.” Siglo XIX, Año III, no. 6, (julio-diciembre 1988).

29  Guido Guzmán. Patrones, arrenderos y piqueros. Emergencia de una estructura agraria poblacional: Toco-Cliza 1860–1920 (Cochabamba: Editorial J.V., 1999); Larson, “Casta y clase,”; Gustavo Rodríguez, ed. La construcción de una región: Cochabamba y su historia, siglos XIX–XX (Cochabamba: UMSS, 1995); Gustavo Rodríguez and Humberto Solares. Sociedad oligárquica, chicha y cultura popular: ensayo histórico sobre la identidad regional (Cochabamba: Editorial Serrano, 1990); and Humberto Solares. Historia, espacio y sociedad: Cochabamba, 1550–1950. 2 vols (Cochabamba: Honorable Alcaldía Municipal de Cochabamba/IIA-Cidre, 1990).

30  Klein, Bolivia, 194. The assumption that the Bolivian army rank and file was composed mainly by indigenous soldiers, was put into question by recent revisionist historiography. See Elizabeth Shesko, “Mobilizing Manpower for War: Toward a New History of Bolivia’s Chaco Conflict, 1932–1935.” Hispanic American Historical Review 95, n. 2 (2015): 307.

31  Herbert Klein, Orígenes de la revolución nacional boliviana: la crisis de la generación del Chaco (La Paz: Librería y Editorial Juventud, 1968).

32  José M. Gordillo, “Educación y cambio social en el Valle Alto de Cochabamba (1930–60).” In Escuelas y procesos de cambio, compiled by Alejandra Ramírez (Cochabamba: CESU, 2006); Brooke Larson, “Capturing Indian Bodies, Heards, and Minds: ‘El hogar campesino’ and Rural School Reform in Bolivia, 1920s–1940s.” In Merilee Grindle and Pilar Domingo, eds. Proclaiming Revolution. Bolivia in Comparative Perspective (Harvard and London: DRCLAS and ILAS, 2003); Toribio Claure, Una escuela rural en Vacas (La Paz: Empresa Editora Universo, 1949); and Elizardo Pérez, Warisata: La escuela-ayllu. 2nd ed (La Paz: Hisbol/CERES, 1992).

33  Jorge Dandler and Juan Torrico. “From the National Indigenous Congress to the Ayopaya Rebellion: Bolivia, 1945–1947.” In Resistance, Rebellion, and Consciousness in the Andean Peasant World, 18th to 20th Centuries, edited by Steve J. Stern, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987): 346.

34  Dandler and Torrico, 353.

35  Historians Laura Gotkowitz, A Revolution for Our Rights: Indigenous Struggles for Land and Justice in Bolivia, 1880–1952 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2007) and Waskar Ari, Earth Politics: Religion, Decolonization, and Bolivia’s Indigenous Intellectuals (Durham: Duke University Press, 2014), both focus their historical work on the highland comunario’s political relationship with pre-revolutionary and post-revolutionary states in Cochabamba and Bolivia.

36  Gotkowitz, A Revolution for Our Rights, 7.

37  Gotkowitz, A Revolution for Our Rights; and Dandler and Torrico, “From the National Indigenous Congress.”

38  ACSJC, AG № 1766, 1947. Carlos Zabalaga contra Hilarión Grágeda y otros.

39  Dandler and Torrico, “From the National Indigenous Congress,” 340.

40  ACSJC, AG № 1766, 236.

41  ACSJC, AG № 1766, 14 March 1947.

42  ACSJC, AG № 1766, 13 March 1947.

43  ACSJC, AG № 1766, 14 February 1947.

44  ACSJC, AG № 1766, 14 February 1947.

45  ACSJC, AG № 1766, 17 February 1947.

46  ACSJC, AG № 1766, 15 February 1947.

47  ACSJC, AG № 1766, 23 February 1947.

48  This anonymous woman seems to be Leticia Fajardo, who was a POR militant and activist among indigenous peasants in the Oruro region. See Sándor John, Bolivia’s Radical Tradition: Permanent Revolution in the Andes (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 2009): 78.

49  ACSJC, AG № 1766, 23 February 1947.

50  ACSJC, AG № 1766, 23 February 1947, 235.

51  ACSJC, AG № 1766, 7 April 1947. Emphasis on the original.

52  ACSJC, AG № 1766, 24 February 1947.

53  Indigenista theories that arose in Latin America at early twentieth century emphasized literacy as a route for integrating peasants into national projects. See Henri Favre, El indigenismo (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1998).

54  The term “sexenio” stands for the six years period following Gualberto Villarroel’s demise in 1946 to the triumph of the national revolution in 1952. Dandler and Torrico, “From the National Indigenous Congress,” 370.

55  Gordillo, Arando en la historia, 13–21.

56  Gordillo, Campesinos revolucionarios, 42.

57  Shesko, “Mobilizing Manpower,” 306.

58  Jackson, Regional Markets, 66.

59  The following paragraphs are indebted to Jorge Dandler, El sindicalismo campesino en Bolivia: Los cambios estructurales en Ucureña. Instituto Indigenista Interamericano. Serie: Antropología Social, 11. Mexico, 1969.

60  Dandler, El sindicalismo campesino en Bolivia, 85.

61  Elizardo Pérez was an indigenista educator who organized the ayllu-school of Warisata in the 1930s. This was an educational project aimed to allow comunarios in the altiplano of La Paz, to take care of their children’s education under their own traditions and culture. See Elizardo Pérez, Warisata.

62  John, Bolivia’s Radical Tradition, 65.

63  Colonel David Toro’s (1936–37) and Colonel Germán Bush’s (1937–39) regimes are known in Bolivia’s political history as the “military socialist regimes.” They attempted to reform Bolivian society from the top down through the implementation of nationalist policies.

64  Dandler, 143.

65  Dandler, 108.

66  Dandler, 110.

67  Dandler, 116.

Notes to Chapter 2

1  John, Bolivia’s Radical Tradition, 98.

2  John, 131.

3  The most important newspapers in the city of Cochabamba from 1952 to 1953 were Los Tiempos and EI País.

4  The members of the agrarian reform commission had different political backgrounds. For instance, the head of the commission was the minister of peasant affairs, Ñuflo Chávez (MNR); some other delegates were Ernesto Ayala (POR), Arturo Urquidi (PIR), and Raimundo Grigoriu (Catholic Church).

5  AHPC, Telegramas, 16, 24 April, 19 June, and 25 August 1952; El País, 5, 12 September 1952; and, Los Tiempos 9, 12, 13 September 1952.

6  Jorge Dandler, “Campesinado y reforma agraria en Cochabamba (1952–1953): dinámica de un movimiento campesino en Bolivia.” In Bolivia, la fuerza histórica del campesinado, edited by Fernando Calderón and Jorge Dandler, (La Paz: UNRISD/CERES, 1984): 216.

7  The right-wing prefects were Anibal Zamorano (April–May 1952); Germán Vera Tapia (June-November 1952), and Gabriel Arze Quiroga (December 1952–March 1954, first period in office).

8  Steve Stern, “New Approaches to the Study of Peasant Rebellion and Consciousness: Implication of the Andean Experience.” In Resistance, Rebellion, and Consciousness in the Andean Peasant World, 18th to 20th Centuries, edited by Steve J. Stern, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987).

9  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 17 June 1952, Leg. № 12/52.

10  El País, 18 July 1952.

11  See Gotkowitz, A Revolution for Our Rights, 164; and, Dandler and Torrico, “From the National Indigenous,” 334.

12  AHPC, Telegramas, 8 May 1952.

13  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 13 December 1952, Leg. № 19/54.

14  El País, 19, 20 November 1952.

15  On Arque peasants’ complaints in Oruro, AHPC, Telegramas. 13, 16, and 20 August 1952. On peasant alliance with Totorapampa’s corregidor, José Maldonado. AHPC, Correspondencia Remitida, 16 October 1952, Leg. № 19/54. On the Ovejería hacienda owners’ complaints against the activist Andrés Mejía and his MNR credentials, AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 13 December 1952, Leg. № 19/54.

16  Information on the Románs’ power network, AHPC, Telegramas, 1 and 8 August 1952; and, 1 and 10 October 1952. Concerning their role as intermediaries, AHPC, Telegramas, 26 May, 17 August, 22 September, 17, 18, 31 October, 2, 14 November, and 5 December 1952.

17  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 5 December 1952, Leg. № 8/52.

18  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 12 July 1952, Leg. № 2/52.

19  El País, 3 May 1952.

20  Los Tiempos, 29 May 1952.

21  Gordillo, Arando en la historia, 13; and, Rivas, Los hombres de la revolución, 43.

22  El País, 10 May, 17, 19 June 1952; and, AHPC, Telegramas, 28 April 1952.

23  Los Tiempos, 21 March 1952.

24  Jackson, Regional Markets, 201; and Gordillo and Jackson, “Formación, crisis y transformación,” 758.

25  Los Tiempos, 7 March 1953. See José M. Gordillo, et.al. ¿Pitaq kaypi kamachiq? Las estructuras de poder en Cochabamba, 1940–2006 (La Paz: CESU, DICYT-UMSS, PIEB, 2007): 81.

26   El País, 30 April 1952.

27  Los Tiempos, 20 May 1952.

28  El País, 30 April 1952.

29  El País, 3 August 1952.

30  John, Bolivia’s Radical Tradition, 140.

31  Los Tiempos, 12 August 1952.

32  Los Tiempos, 13 August 1952.

33  El País, 6 December 1952.

34  El País, 23 December 1952.

35  Los Tiempos, 25 June 1952.

36  Rodríguez and Solares, Sociedad oligárquica, chicha y cultura popular.

37  Los Tiempos, 29 June 1952.

38  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 30 June 1952, Leg. № 10/52.

39  AHPC, Correspondencia Remitida, 31 July 1952, Leg. № 10/52.

40  Los Tiempos, 27, 29 August 1952; AHPC, Telegramas, 14 August 1952; Gordillo, Arando en la historia, 14; and Rivas, Los hombres de la revolución, 45.

41  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 1 September 1952, Leg. № 19/52 and AHPC, Telegramas, 29 September 1952.

42  Los Tiempos, 3l August 1952; El País, 4 September 1952; and AHPC, Telegramas, 29 August, 2 and 3 September 1952.

43  The undercover agents’ reports to the prefect are in AHPC, Telegramas, 5 and 6 September 1952.

44  AHPC, Telegramas, 5 October 1952.

45  AHPC, Telegramas, 26 December 1952.

46  AHPC, Telegramas, 9 December 1952.

47  AHPC, Telegramas, 29 October 1952.

48  For the pacification journey’s chronicle, El País, 7 November 1952. For the prefect communication with the district attorney, AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 8 November 1952, Leg. № 8/52.

49  Los Tiempos, 8 November 1952.

50  El País, 13 November 1952.

51  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 11 November 1952, Leg. № 8/52.

52  Los Tiempos, 9 November 1952.

53  Los Tiempos, 8 November 1952.

54  Los Tiempos, 22 November 1952.

55  El País, 11 November 1952.

56  El País, 21 November 1952.

57  El País, 13 and 15 November 1952.

58  Los Tiempos, 23 November 1952.

59  Gotkowitz, A Revolution for Our Rights, 114.

60  Los Tiempos, 27 July 1952.

61  El País, 26 November 1952.

62  El País, 17 December 1952.

63  Los Tiempos, 4 December 1952.

64  Los Tiempos, 11 June and 12 December 1952; and El País, 27 July and 26 September 1952.

65  El País, 19 November 1952.

66  El País, 19 November 1952.

67  El País, 19 November 1952.

68  El País, 19 November 1952.

69  El País, 19 November 1952.

70  El País, 7 December 1952.

71  Los Tiempos, 12, 20 November and 9 December 1952.

72  Los Tiempos, 23, 24 December 1952; and El País, 23, 24 December 1952.

73  Los Tiempos, 4 January 1953.

74  El País, 7 January 1953; Los Tiempos, 7 January 1953; and AHPC, Telegramas, 6 January 1953.

75  El País, 8 January 1953.

76  Sándor John, Bolivia’s Radical Tradition, 144.

77  Los Tiempos, 4 February 1953.

78  Los Tiempos, 6 and 9 January 1953.

79  Sándor John, Bolivia’s Radical Tradition, 145.

80  John, 146.

81  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 16 January 1953, Leg. № 4/53.

82  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 30 January 1953, Leg. № 4/53.

83  Los Tiempos, 3 January 1953.

84  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 20 January 1953, Leg. № 14/53.

85  AHPC, Telegramas, 9 January 1953.

86  AHPC, Telegramas, 18 January 1953.

87  AHPC, Correspondencia Remitida, 14 January 1953, Leg. № 14/53.

88  AHPC, Correspondencia Remitida, 14, 19, and 26 January 1953, Leg. № 14/53.

89  Los Tiempos, 27 January 1953.

90  El País, 30 January 1953.

91  El País, 23 January 1953.

92  Los Tiempos, l February 1953.

93  El País, l February 1953.

94  Los Tiempos, l February 1953.

95  El País, 1 February 1953.

96  See Sándor John, Bolivia’s Radical Tradition, 145.

97  Los Tiempos, 4 February 1953 and El País, 3 February 1953.

98  AHPC, Radiogramas, 3 February 1953, Leg. № 22/53.

99  Los Tiempos, 22 February 1953.

100  Víctor Zannier, ٢٢ March ١٩٩٦.

101  AHPC, Radiogramas, 4 February 1953, Leg. № 22/53.

102  AHPC, Radiogramas, 4 February 1953, Leg. № 22/53.

103  Los Tiempos, 15 February 1953.

104  Los Tiempos, 22 April 1953.

105  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 31 January 1953, Leg. № 17/53; and, AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 3 February 1953, Leg. № 13/53.

106  AHPC, Telegramas, 31 March 1953.

107  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 11 March 1953, Leg. № 17/53.

108  Víctor Zannier, ٢٢ March ١٩٩٦.

109  Los Tiempos, 11 April 1953.

110  Sinforoso Rivas, Los hombres de la revolución, 77.

111  Rivas, 66.

112  Sinforoso Rivas, 17 October 1996.

113  Los Tiempos, 10 June 1953.

114  Gaceta Campesina (La Paz, 1953), 57.

115  Sinforoso Rivas, 17 October 1996.

116  Los Tiempos, 11 July 1953.

117  Los Tiempos, 8 July 1953.

118  Sinforoso Rivas, 17 October 1996.

119  Los Tiempos, 11 July 1953.

120  Los Tiempos, 10 July 1953.

121  Los Tiempos, 5 July 1953.

122  Los Tiempos, 11 July 1953.

123  Marta Irurozqui. La armonía de las desigualdades: elites y conflictos de poder en Bolivia, 1880–1920 (Cusco: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas/Centro de Estudios Regionales Andinos Bartolomé de las Casas, 1994); and “La amenaza chola: la participación popular en las elecciones bolivianas, 1900–1930.” Revista Andina 13, no. 2 (1995); Marie Demelas, Nationalisme sans nation? La Bolivie aux XIX–XXe siècles (Paris: Editions du CNRS, 1980); and “Darwinismo a la criolla: El darwinismo social en Bolivia, 1880–1910,” Historia Boliviana 1, no. 2 (1981).

124  Los Tiempos, 15 May, 9 November 1952 and 9 May, 5 July 1953.

125  Los Tiempos, 15 November 1952.

126  Los Tiempos, 6 December 1952.

127  Los Tiempos, 20 February 1953.

128  Los Tiempos, 20 February 1953.

129  Los Tiempos, 3 January 1953.

130  Los Tiempos, 3 January 1953.

131   Los Tiempos, 24 December 1952.

132  Los Tiempos, 29 July 1952.

133  Los Tiempos, 19 April 1953.

134  Los Tiempos, 28 February 1953.

135  Los Tiempos, 9 October 1952.

136  Los Tiempos, 12 August 1952.

137  Los Tiempos, 24 August 1952.

138  Los Tiempos, 9 September 1952.

139  Los Tiempos, 21 November 1952.

140  Los Tiempos, 9 September 1952.

141  Los Tiempos, 20 May and 15 July 1952.

142  Los Tiempos, 27 November 1952.

143  Los Tiempos, 3 December 1952.

144  Los Tiempos, 12 May 1953.

145  Los Tiempos, 20 May; 1, 4, 8 July, and 23 August 1953.

146  Los Tiempos, 1 September 1953.

147  Gustavo Rodríguez, “Fiesta, poder y espacio urbano en Cochabamba, (1880–1923)” and “Fronteras Interiores y Exteriores: Tradición y Modernidad en Cochabamba, (1825–1917)” in La construcción de una región: Cochabamba y su historia, siglos XIX–XX, ed. Gustavo Rodríguez Ostria, (Cochabamba: UMSS,1995).

148  Los Tiempos, 24 July 1953.

149  Los Tiempos, 29 June 1952.

150  Los Tiempos, 26 July 1952. Emphasis on the original.

151  Los Tiempos, 18 September 1952.

152  Dandler and Torrico, “From the National Indigenous,” 342.

153  Antonio Álvarez Mamani and Claudia Ranaboldo, El camino perdido: Chinkasqa ñan, thakhi chhagayata: biografía del dirigente campesino kallawaya Antonio Álvarez Mamani (La Paz: SEMTA, 1987).

154  Los Tiempos, 18 September 1952.

155  Los Tiempos, 23 January 1953.

156  Los Tiempos, 23 April 1953.

157  Los Tiempos, l7 April 1953.

158  Los Tiempos, 3 February 1953.

Notes to Chapter 3

1  AHPC, Correspondencia Remitida, 10 January 1954, Leg. № 1/54.

2  The Cochabamba left-wing prefects during Paz’s first administration were Edgar Núñez Vela (April 1954 to February 1955) and Joaquín Lemoine (March 1955 to September 1956).

3  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 29 September 1954, Leg. № 9/54.

4  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 9 February 1954, Leg. № 18/54.

5  AHPC, Denuncias, 11 January 1954.

6  El Pueblo, 24 February 1954 and 9 October 1955; AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 6 May, 11 July, and 9 August 1954, Leg. № 12/54; AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 21 May and 28 August 1954, Leg. № 9/54; AHPC, Telegramas, 9, 12 September, and 4 December 1954.

7  Some of the right-wing peasant leaders were Simón Aguilar (Cliza), José Pedro Ugarte (Arque), Washington Arce (Capinota), Federico Crespo (Independencia), Héctor Román (Aiquile), and Enrique Vargas (Tapacarí). AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 11, 31 May 1954, Leg. № 14/54; AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 5 June 1954, Leg. № 11/54; AHPC, Telegramas, 2, 4 January 1954, Leg. № 12/54.

8  Some of the left-wing peasant leaders were Clemente Censano (Aiquile), Juan de la Cruz Zurita (Liquinas), Lorenzo Pedroso (Vila Vila), Marcelino Vargas (Tapacarí), Marcelino Borda (Independencia), Benito Ricaldez (Arani), Pedro Pablo Bautista (Punata), and Casiano Vallejos (Arque). AHPC, Correspondencia Remitida, 15 October 1954, Leg. N° 9/54; 19 September 1954, Leg. N° 20/54; 18 May 1954, Leg. N° 21/S4; 8 March 1954, Leg. N° 16/54; 1 June 1954, Leg. N° 1 8/54; 21 October 1956, Leg. N° 5/56. AHPC, Telegramas, 27 October 1956.

9  AHPC, Correspondencia Remitida, 18 February 1954, Leg. № 11/54.

10  Gordillo, Arando en la historia, 116.

11  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 16 August 1954, Leg. № 11/54.

12  At that time, the Bolivian currency was devalued 150 per cent. El Pueblo, 24 March 1954 and 30 March 1955.

13  El Pueblo, 17 December 1954.

14  El Pueblo, 7 January 1955.

15  El Pueblo, 13 January 1955.

16  El Pueblo, 8 February 1955.

17  El Pueblo, 15 February and 30 March 1955.

18  El Pueblo, 3 April and 15 June 1954.

19  El Pueblo, 8 June 1954.

20  El Pueblo, 31 July 1954.

21  AHPC, Correspondencia Remitida, 14 July 1954, Leg. № 5/54 and AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 4 February 1954, Leg. № 11/54.

22  Rural violence in this period was analyzed from 125 denounces stored in the AHPC.

23  AHPC, Correspondencia Remitida, 24 October 1955, Leg. № 3/55.

24  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 21 September 1954, Leg. № 22/54.

25  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 20 April 1954, Leg. № 20/54.

26  Dandler, El Sindicalismo campesino en Bolivia, 12.

27  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 12 July 1954, Leg. № 9/54.

28  Rodríguez, “Fronteras interiores y exteriores,” and Rodríguez and Solares, Sociedad oligárquica, chicha y cultura popular. Both authors traced the popular classes’ invasion of downtown’s public spaces in Cochabamba city during the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries.

29  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 1 July 1953, Leg. № 2/53; and, AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 16 April and 9 December 1954, Leg. № 9/54.

30  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 20 May 1954, Leg. № 17/54; and, AHPC, Correspondencia Remitida, 30 May 1955 and 19 December 1955, Leg. № 3/55.

31  Carlos Crespo, 18 September 1997. See Mercedes del Río, “Simbolismo y poder en Tapacarí,” Revista Andina 8, no. 1 (July 1990).

32  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 10 June 1954, Leg. № 14/54.

33  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 20 July 1954, Leg. № 20/54.

34  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 12 August 1954, Leg. № 9/54.

35  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 31 May 1954, Leg. № 1/54; and, AHPC, Telegramas, 25, 26 March, 27 April, and 1 May 1954.

36  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 12 August 1954, Leg. № 9/54.

37  AHPC, Telegramas, 29 October 1954.

38  AHPC, Telegramas, 1 December 1954.

39  AHPC, Telegramas, 4 December 1954.

40  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 28 November 1954, Leg. № 14/54. Emphasis on the original.

41  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 28 November 1954, Leg. № 14/54.

42  AHPC, Telegramas, 3 March 1955. “Another important leader of the uprising was Simón Sanchez, who was a comunario leader affiliated to the FSTCC.” Sinforoso Rivas, 17 January 1998. See also, AHPC, Telegramas, 4, 7, and 21 November 1954.

43  Solíz, “‘Land to the Original Owners,”’268.

44  El Pueblo, 5 January 1956.

45  El Pueblo, 2 July 1955 and l7 January 1956.

46  El Pueblo, 4 February 1956.

47  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 9 January 1956, Leg. № 5/56.

48  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 9 January 1956, Leg. № 5/56.

49  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 9 January 1956, Leg. № 5/56.

50  AHPC, Telegramas, 21 June 1956 and El Pueblo, 1 August 1956.

51  Gordillo, Arando en la historia, 161.

52  El Pueblo, 3 August 1956.

53  Rivas, Los hombres de la revolución, 151.

54  Rivas, 153.

55  Sinforoso Rivas, 8 June 1998.

56  El Pueblo, 3 January 1957.

57  El Pueblo, 12 February 1957.

58  El Pueblo, 5 April 1957.

59  El Pueblo, 27 April 1957.

60  El Pueblo, 5 July 1957.

61  El Pueblo, 14 September 1957.

62  El Pueblo, 17 September 1957.

63  El Pueblo, 26 September 1957.

64  El Pueblo, 3 October 1957.

65  El Pueblo, 3 October 1957.

66  El Pueblo, 5 October 1957.

67  AHPC, Telegramas, 5 October 1957; and, El Pueblo, 5 October 1957.

68  El Pueblo, 7 October 1957.

69  El Pueblo, 7 October 1957.

70  AHPC, Telegramas, 18 October 1957.

71  El Pueblo, 24 October 1957.

72  AHPC, Telegramas, 29 October 1957.

73  El Pueblo, 15 December 1957.

74  El Pueblo, 14, 23 January 1958.

75  El Pueblo, 29 January 1958.

76  El Pueblo, 2 February 1958.

77  El Pueblo, 5 February 1958

78  El Pueblo, 8, 9 May 1958.

79  El Pueblo, 4 June 1958.

80  El Pueblo, 11 July 1958.

81  El Pueblo, 2 September 1958.

82  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 21 August 1958, Leg. № 11/58.

83  El Pueblo, 7 September 1958.

84  El Pueblo, 16, 27 September 1958.

85  El Pueblo, 2 October 1958.

86  See Olivia Harris and Xavier Albó, Monteras y guardatojos: campesinos y mineros en el norte de Potosí (La Paz: CIPCA, 1986).

87  El Pueblo, 10 August 1954.

88  El Pueblo, 3 January 1958.

89  El Pueblo, 9 January 1958.

90  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 7 February 1958, Leg. № 11/58.

91  Bridgette Werner. “Between Autonomy and Acquiescence: Negotiating Rule in Revolutionary Bolivia, 1953–1958.” Hispanic American Historical Review 100: 1, February (2020): 94 and 104.

92  AHPC, Telegramas, 27 January 1958.

93  AHPC, Telegramas, 29 January 1958.

94  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 7 February 1958, Leg. № 11/58.

95  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 7 February 1958, Leg. № 11/58.

96  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 7 February 1958, Leg. № 11/58.

97  Werner, “Between Autonomy and Acquiescence,” 107.

98  Werner, 120.

99  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 9 June 1958, Leg. № 11/58.

100  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 9 June 1958, Leg. № 11/58.

101  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 9 June 1958, Leg. № 11/58.

102  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 22 August 1958, Leg. № 4/58.

103  AHPC, Correspondencia Recibida, 22 August 1958, Leg. № 4/58.

104  AHPC, Correspondencia Remitida, 12 September 1958, Leg. № 4/56.

105  El Pueblo, 16, 19, and 25 November 1958.

106  An opposed interpretation of the events can be found in Rivera, “Oppressed but not Defeated,” and Albó, “From MNRistas to Kataristas,” both of whom advocate the idea of actual peasant subordination to the revolutionary state.

107  El Pueblo, 2 August 1956.

108  El Pueblo, 18 August 1956.

109  El Pueblo, 28 July 1957.

110  El Pueblo, 19 May, 29 June, 3 July, 29 August, and 8 September 1957.

111  El Pueblo, 25 February 1958.

112  El Pueblo, 25 February 1958.

113  El Pueblo 2, 4 March, 7 May, and 2 July 1958.

114  El Pueblo, 3 August 1958.

115  El Pueblo, 15 August 1958.

116  El Pueblo, 31 December 1958.

117  El Pueblo, 2l August 1957.

118  El Pueblo, 15 June 1955.

119  El Pueblo, 7 April 1955.

120  El Pueblo, 23 July, 20 August, 9, 19 September, and 6 October 1954. El Pueblo, 27, 29 March, 7, 30 April, 3, 6, 14 May, 12, 16 June, and 27 July 1955.

121  El Pueblo, 28 March 1954.

122  El Pueblo, 22 August 1954.

123  El Pueblo, 19 September 1954.

124  El Pueblo, 12 February 1955.

125  El Pueblo, 14 July 1955.

126  El Pueblo 19 May, 21 September, l6 October, and 15 December 1955.

127  Gordillo, “La región de Cochabamba,” 59.

128  El Pueblo, 5 January 1957.

129  Rivas, Los hombres de la revolución, 114. El Pueblo 2, 9, 12, 13 February; 24 August; and 8 September 1957.

130  El Pueblo, 2 August 1957.

131  El Pueblo, 22 November 1957.

132  El Pueblo, 3 August 1958.

133  El Pueblo, 21 October 1958.

134  Werner, “Between Autonomy and Acquiescence,” 119–121.

Notes to Chapter 4

1  Champa is a Quechua word applied to brushwood and tangled things. Champa Guerra alludes to an extremely confused conflict where it seemed that everyone fought against everyone else.

2  Brian Loveman and Thomas M. Davies, The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America, 2nd ed (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989); Linda A. Rodríguez, Rank and Privilege (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Inc., 1994); and Brian Loveman, For La Patria: Politics and the Armed Forces in Latin America (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Inc., 1999).

3  Thomas Field, From Development to Dictatorship: Bolivia and the Alliance for Progress in the Kennedy Era (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2017).

4  Field, 8.

5  El Pueblo, 21 December 1958; and, 4 April 1959.

6  El Pueblo, 11, 12, 21 January; and, 14 February 1959.

7  El Pueblo, 8 February and 1 March 1959. See Enrique Encinas, Fernando Mayorga, and Enrique Birhuett, Jinapuni: testimonio de un dirigente campesino (La Paz: Hisbol, 1989): 9.

8  El Pueblo, 13 March 1959.

9  Gordillo, Arando en la historia, 106.

10  Jorge Dandler, “La ‘Champa Guerra’ de Cochabamba: un proceso de disgregación política.” In Bolivia, la fuerza histórica del campesinado, edited by Fernando Calderón and Jorge Dandler, (La Paz: UNRISD/CERES, 1984): 248.

11  El Pueblo, 13 March 1959.

12  El Pueblo, 19 March 1959.

13  El Pueblo, 4 April 1959.

14  El Pueblo, 18 April 1959.

15  El Mundo, 26 June and 11 July 1959.

16  El Pueblo, 12 December 1958.

17  El Pueblo, 11 September 1959.

18  El Pueblo, 12 September 1959.

19  El Pueblo, 25 October 1959.

20  El Pueblo, 31 October 1959.

21  El Pueblo, 18, 24 November 1959. See Xavier Albó, Achacachi, medio siglo de lucha campesina (La Paz: CIPCA, 1979).

22  El Pueblo, 29 November 1959.

23  El Pueblo, 29 November 1959.

24  El Mundo, 12 January 1960.

25  El Mundo, 21 January 1960.

26  El Mundo, 23 January 1960.

27  El Mundo, 28 January 1960.

28  El Mundo, 29, 30 January 1960.

29  El Mundo, 20 March 1960.

30  El Mundo, 22, 23 March 1960.

31  El Mundo, 5 May 1960.

32  El Mundo, 6 and 21 June 1960.

33  El Mundo, 16 June 1960.

34  El Mundo, 15 June 1960.

35  This event was widely covered by El Mundo during the last ten days of June 1960.

36  El Mundo, 1 July 1960.

37  El Mundo, 24 July and 12 August 1960.

38  El Mundo, 12 August 1960.

39  El Mundo, 26 August 1960.

40  El Mundo, 3l August and 6 September 1960.

41  El Mundo, 6 September 1960.

42  Klein, Bolivia, 243; Malloy, The Uncompleted Revolution, 242; and Field, From Development to Dictatorship, 74.

43  El Mundo, 18 December 1959; and, 21 February and 8 September 1960.

44  El Mundo, 30 October 1960.

45  El Mundo and Prensa Libre from 13 to 29 November 1960.

46  Sinforoso Rivas, 17 January 1998.

47  El Mundo, 20 December 1960.

48  El Mundo, 16 December 1960.

49  Field, From Development to Dictatorship, 79.

50  Field, 3.

51  El Mundo, 10 February 1961.

52  El Mundo, 4, 5 July, and 22 September 1961.

53  El Mundo, 20 April 1961.

54  El Mundo, 4 June 1962.

55  El Mundo 3 to 11 July 1962.

56  Prensa Libre, 16 December 1960.

57  AHPC, Correspondencia Remitida, 17 August 1962, Leg. № 1/62.

58  AHPC, Correspondencia Remitida, 17 August 1962, Leg. № 1/62.

59  El Mundo, 3, 4 August 1962; Prensa Libre, 4 August 1962; and, AHPC, Radiogramas, 1 August 1962, Leg. № 3/61.

60  AHPC, Correspondencia Remitida, 17 August 1962, Leg. № 1/62.

61  El Mundo, 31 August, 6 September, and 8 October 1962 and Prensa Libre, 30 October 1962.

62  El Mundo, 14, 24 November 1962.

63  El Mundo, 16 December 1962.

64  El Mundo, 21 December 1962.

65  El Mundo, 15 December 1962.

66  El Mundo, 6 June 1963.

67  El Mundo, 29 January, 12 February, and 3 March 1963.

68  El Mundo, 6 February, 9 October 1962, and 5 July 1963.

69  El Mundo, 10 March 1963.

70  El Mundo, 23 February 1963.

71  El Mundo, 7 March 1963.

72  El Mundo, 9 and 14 March 1963.

73  El Mundo, 21 April 1963.

74  Field, From Development to Dictatorship, 78.

75  El Mundo, 3 May 1963.

76  El Mundo, 7 May 1963.

77  Prensa Libre, 27 September 1962.

78  El Mundo, 23 July 1963.

79  El Mundo, 25 August 1963.

80  El Mundo, 3 and 20 August 1963.

81  El Mundo, 20 August 1963.

82  El Mundo, 30 August and 5, 7 and 19 September 1963.

83  El Mundo, 26 June 1963.

84  El Mundo, 21 August 1963.

85  El Mundo and Prensa Libre, 7, 18, 21, and 22 September 1963 and 11, 21 January, 1 February, and 26 April 1964.

86  El Mundo and Prensa Libre, 17 and 19 September and 4, 5, 6, 11, and 12 October 1963.

87  Encinas, et.al., Jinapuni, 66.

88  El Mundo, 19 September and 6 October 1963.

89  El Mundo, 26 September 1963.

90  El Mundo, 6 December 1963.

91  Field, From Development to Dictatorship, 109.

92  El Mundo and Prensa Libre, 11 December 1963.

93  Salvador Vásquez, 25 July 1998.

94  Prensa Libre, 7 March 1964.

95  El Mundo, 20 January 1964.

96  Prensa Libre from 18 to 29 January 1964, and El Mundo, 1 and 7 February, 11 March, and 25 May 1964.

97  El Mundo, 26 February, 8 March, and 11 and 26 April 1964.

98  From Development to Dictatorship, 138.

99  El Mundo, 15 March 1964.

100  El Mundo, 7 and 8 April 1964.

101  El Mundo, 11 April 1964.

102  Cesar Soto, Historia del pacto militar campesino (Cochabamba: CERES, 1994): 14.

103  Prensa Libre, 25August 1964.

104  El Mundo, 12 January 1964.

105  El Mundo, 23 May 1964.

106  El Mundo, 26 May 1964.

107  El Mundo, 30 May 1964.

108  El Mundo, 4 June 1964.

109  El Mundo, 15 July 1964.

110  El Mundo, 28 July 1964.

111  El Mundo, 23 October 1959.

112  El Mundo, 23 January 1960.

113  El Mundo, 27 January 1960.

114  El Mundo, 14 February 1960.

115  El Mundo, 6 September 1960.

116  El Mundo, 7 September 1960. See also El Mundo 15, 30 November 1960; and, 15 January and 14 July 1961.

117  El Mundo, 7 September 1960.

118  El Mundo, 5 July 1960.

119  El Mundo, 5 July 1960.

120  El Mundo, 9 July 1960.

121  El Mundo, 21 November 1961.

122  El Mundo, 10 August 1962.

123  El Mundo, l5 August 1962.

124  El Mundo, 26 October 1962.

125  El Mundo, 21 November 1962.

126  El Mundo, 18, 24 August, 2, 6 September, 14, 16 November, and 5 December 1962.

127  El Mundo, 11 March 1960.

128  El Mundo, 31 August 1960.

129  El Mundo, 31 August 1960.

130  El Mundo, 13 September 1960.

131  “We have brought Dr. Paz and his helpers to power with our sacrifice, with our pain, and with our funds, and now we see that the outrages come from our party.” El Mundo, 30 December 1960.

132  El Mundo, 30 December 1960.

133  In a speech by Walter Guevara to the Cliza peasants, he asserted that: “Universal suffrage has not been created so that a few peasant leaders could make use and misuse of it indicating collectively to the rural laborer for whom they should vote.” El Mundo, 29 December 1959.

134  El Mundo, 24 December 1959.

135  El Mundo, 24 March 1960.

136  El Mundo, 30 November 1960.

137  El Mundo, 15 April 1961.

138  El Mundo, 30 September 1960.

139  “Could the Ucureña peasants in whose veins run the same blood forget that Jorge Solíz, Salvador Vásquez, and Crisóstomo Inturias were the guard dogs of the properties of Candelaria viuda de Ledezma? That up until 9 April 1952, those who handled the whip of the great estate owners were those who have now once again made themselves chieftains, lords of lives and estates?” El Mundo, 13 January 1961.

140  El Mundo, 22 March 1963.

141  El Mundo, 5 May 1963.

142  El Mundo, 9 May 1963.

143  El Mundo, 17 June 1963.

144  El Mundo, 31 August 1963.

145  “There is, then, an undeniable complication which the government and the authorities cannot contemplate impassively. They have in their hands all the legal and forcible resources to put a stop to the initiatives and the acts of certain peasant groups who believed that they had impunity for their crimes.” El Mundo, 7 September 1963.

146  El Mundo, 14 September 1963.

147  El Mundo, 26 September 1963.

148  El Mundo, 21 April 1963.

149  “The revolution sees in us [the armed forces] a great realization as an institution and an immense contribution, as an expression of the revolution through roads, schools, economic recovery, etc.” El Mundo, 21 April 1963.

150  El Mundo, 21 April 1963.

151  El Mundo, 21 April 1963.

152  El Mundo, 26 April 1963.

153  As Barrientos asserted in a press interview: “Revolution is faith and hope; it is not hatred or lack of union or the achievement of the mean aspirations of a small group of people. Revolution is the weapon which conquers all difficulties. It is where all Bolivians meet.” El Mundo, 3 July 1963.

154  El Mundo, 28 July 1963.

155  El Mundo, 23 August 1963.

156  El Mundo, 5 November 1963.

157  El Mundo, 20 October 1963.

158  El Mundo, 6 September 1964.

159   El Mundo, 17 October 1964.

160  El Mundo, 14 March 1963.

161  El Mundo, 19 February 1963.

162  El Mundo, 26 July 1963.

163  El Mundo, 8 October 1963.

164  El Mundo, 21 April 1964.

Notes to Chapter 5

1  Larson, Colonialism and Agrarian Transformation; Gordillo, “La región de Cochabamba,”; Rodríguez, “Entre reformas y contrarreformas,”; Jackson, Regional Markets and Agrarian Transformation; Rodríguez and Solares, Sociedad oligárquica; and Gordillo and Jackson, “Mestizaje y proceso de parcelación.”

2  Gotkowitz, A Revolution for Our Rights; Roberto Choque, “Las rebeliones indígenas de la post-Guerra del Chaco: Reivindicaciones indígenas durante la pre-revolución,” Data no. 3 (1992); Dandler and Torrico, “From the National Indigenous Congress,”; Dandler, El sindicalismo campesino en Bolivia; Luis Antezana and Hugo Romero, Historia de los sindicatos campesinos: un proceso de integración nacional en Bolivia (La Paz: Consejo Nacional de Reforma Agraria, 1973); Luis Antezana, La revolución campesina en Bolivia: historia del sindicalismo campesino (La Paz: Empresa Editora Siglo, 1982).

3  Boyer, Becoming Campesinos, 21.

4  Larson, ed., Explotación agraria y resistencia campesina; and, “Casta y clase,”; and Jackson, Regional Markets and Agrarian Transformation.

5  Herbert Klein, Orígenes de la revolución nacional boliviana: la crisis de la generación del Chaco (La Paz: Librería y Editorial Juventud, 1968).

6  Alonso, Thread of Blood, 232.

7  Testimony by Salvador Vásquez in Gordillo, Arando en la historia, 69.

8  Mario Torrico, 11 March 1994.

9  Damián and Máximo Encinas, 10 February 1996.

10  Damián and Máximo Encinas, 10 February 1996.

11  Mario Torrico, 11 March 1994.

12  Liborio Terceros, 20 January 1996.

13  Damián and Máximo Encinas, 10 February 1996.

14  Leoncio Torrico, 6 May 1995.

15  Petrona Ricaldez, 26 January 1996.

16  Petrona Ricaldez, 26 January 1996.

17  Petrona Ricaldez, 26 January 1996.

18  Petrona Ricaldez, 26 January 1996.

19  Néstor Taboada. Indios en rebelión: hechos de la revolución boliviana (Cochabamba: Los Amigos del Libro, 1968) and Jesús Lara’s trilogy, Yawarninchij. Nuestra Sangre (Cochabamba: Los Amigos del Libro, 1974); Sinchicay: El Valor (Cochabamba: Los Amigos del Libro, 1977); and Llalliypacha: Tiempo de vencer (Cochabamba: Los Amigos del Libro, 1977).

20  Rita Cabrera, 12 November 1993.

21  Angelina Ovando, 15 February 1994.

22  Angelina Ovando, 15 February 1994.

23  Angelina Ovando, 15 February 1994.

24  Carlos Montaño, 12 November 1993.

25  Gordillo, Arando en la historia, 139.

26  Ramón Guardia, 20 May 1995.

27  Bonifacio Cano, 19 March 1994.

28  Mario Torrico, 11 March 1994.

29  Gordillo, Arando en la historia, 119.

30  Thierry Saignes, ed. Borrachera y memoria: la experiencia de lo sagrado en Los Andes, (La Paz: Hisbol/IFEA, 1993), 18.

31  Dwight B. Heath, “Borrachera indígena, cambio de concepciones. Comentario en torno a Borrachera y memoria.” In Borrachera y memoria: la experiencia de lo sagrado en Los Andes, edited by Thierry Saignes, (La Paz: Hisbol/IFEA, 1993): 175.

32  Faustino Arias, 6 November 1993.

33  Solares, Historia, espacio y sociedad, and Rodríguez and Solares, Sociedad oligárquica.

34  Sixto Soto, 21 August 1995.

35  Germán Delgadillo, 12 March 1994.

36  José Rocha, Sociedad agraria y religión: Cambio social e identidad en los valles de Cochabamba (La Paz: Hisbol, 1990).

37  Andrés Villafan, 2 April 1994.

38  Sixto Soto, 21 August 1995.

39  Ineke Dibbits, et.al. Polleras libertarias: Federación Obrera Femenina (1927–1964) (La Paz: Tahipamu-Hisbol, 1989) and Zulema Lehm and Silvia Rivera, Los artesanos libertarios y la ética del trabajo (La Paz: THOA, 1988).

40  Thierry Saignes, “‘Estar en otra cabeza’: tomar en los Andes.” In Borrachera y Memoria: la experiencia de lo sagrado en Los Andes, edited by Thierry Saignes, (La Paz: Hisbol/IFEA, 1993): 17.

41  AJIC, 29 April 1958. Nicomedes Sosa vs Hilarión Alba y otros (Heridas); ACSJC, № 5594, 6 September 1957. Pastor lnturias vs Miguel y Bernardino Veizaga (Homicidio); AJIT, № 48, 14 May 1956. Oficio vs Gregorio López y otros (Homicidio); ACSJC, № 4063, 11 January 1955. Alejandro Torrico vs Román Casilla (Heridas); ACSJC, № 5545, 7 July 1958. José Gutiérrez vs Gregorio López (Heridas); and, ACSJC, № 4699, 24 April 1958. Francisco Jordán vs Lorenzo Pedroso (Heridas).

42  ACSJC, № 4598, 12 May 1958. Oficio vs Gregorio López (Desacato); AJIC, № 16/59, 1 April 1959. Indalecio Linares vs Remigio Crespo (Obstrucción de justicia); AJIT, 31 August 1957. Oficio vs Román Casilla (Excarcelación); and, AJIC, 12 August 1953. Oficio vs Narciso Escobar (Excarcelación).

43  ACSJC, № 1795, 14 April 1962. Oficio vs Juan de la Cruz Zurita (Homicidio); ACSJC, № 4478, 29 August 1963. Oficio vs Flaviano Vega (Asesinato); ACSJC, № 4969, 12 February 1963. Oficio vs Jorge Solíz (Asesinato); ACSJC, № 4449, 13 January 1964. Oficio vs Manuel Maldonado (Asesinato); ACSJC, № 4730, 30 March 1967. Manuel Cuchallo vs José Rojas (Robo); and, ACSJC, № 5503, 21 May 1969. Antonio Sánchez vs Salvador Vásquez (Ataque armado).

44  Larson, “Casta y clase,”; Colonialism and Agrarian Transformation; “Dimensiones históricas,”; Larson and León, “Markets, Power, and the Politics,”; Sánchez-Albornoz, Indios y tributos; Wachtel, “Los mitimas,”; Gordillo and Jackson, “Mestizaje y proceso de parcelación,”; Gordillo and del Río, La visita de Tiquipaya; and Guzmán, Patrones, arrenderos y piqueros.

45  Damián and Máximo Encinas, 20 January 1996.

46  Mario Torrico, 11 March 1994.

47  Liborio Terceros, 20 January 1996.

48  “Indigenista policy can be defined as systematic action undertaken by the state through a specialized administrative apparatus whose aim is to introduce a controlled and planned change in the heart of the indigenous population with the aim of absorbing cultural, social, and economic disparities between the Indians and the non-indigenous population.” Favre, El indigenismo, 108.

49  Germán Delgadillo, 12 March 1994.

50  Germán Delgadillo, 12 March 1994.

51  María Quiroga, 27 January 1993.

52  Bonifacio Cano, 19 March 1994.

53  Mario Torrico, 11 March 1994.

54  Albó, Achacachi, 48.

55  Andrés Villafan, 2 April 1994.

56  Carlos Montaño, 12 January 1993.

57  Rita Cabrera, 12 November 1993.

58  Paulino Arias, 6 January 1993.

59  Carlos Montaño, 12 January 1993.

60  Paulino Arias, 6 November 1993.

61  Carlos Montaño, 12 January 1993.

62  This paradox was addressed by several scholars who studied peasant societies in revolutionary Mexico. See Arturo Warman, Y venimos a contradecir: los campesinos de Morelos y el estado nacional (Mexico City: SEP, 1988); John Gledhill, Casi Nada: A Study of Agrarian Reform in the Homeland of Cardenismo (Albany: Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, University at Albany-SUNY, 1991); Paul Friedrich, The Princes of Naranja: An Essay in Anthrohistorical Method (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986); and Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution, 2 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).

63  Mario Torrico, 11 March 1994.

64  Damián and Máximo Encinas, 10 February 1996.

65  Albó, Achacachi; Harris and Albó, Monteras y guardatojos; Rivera, “Oppressed but not Defeated,”; and Soto, Historia del pacto militar campesino.

66  See Scott, Weapons of the Weak.

67  Mario Torrico, 11 March 1994.

68  See Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance.

69  Andrés Villafan, 2 April 1994.

70  Liborio Terceros, 20 January 1996.

71  Víctor Milán, ٦ May ١٩٩٥.

72  Damián and Máximo Encinas, 10 February 1996.

73  Mario Torrico, 11 March 1994.

74  Ramón Guardia, 20 May 1995.

75  Óscar Vargas, La verdad sobre la muerte del General Barrientos: a la luz de investigaciones policiales, técnicas y esotéricas (La Paz: Los Amigos del Libro, 1983).

76  Víctor Milán, ٦ May ١٩٩٥.

77  Leoncio Torrico, 6 May 1995.

78  Mario Torrico, 11 March 1994.

Notes to Conclusion

1  Leoncio Torrico, 6 May 1995.

2  Peter Wade, Race and Ethnicity in Latin America (London: Pluto Press, 2010); Richard Graham, ed., The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990); and E. Bradford Burns, The Poverty of Progress: Latin America in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980).

3  Jeffrey Gould, To Die in this Way: Nicaraguan Indians and the Myth of Mestizaje, 1880–1965 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998) and To Lead as Equals: Rural Protest and Political Consciousness in Chinandega, Nicaragua, 1912–1979 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Marta Irurozqui, La armonía de las desigualdades and “La amenaza chola,”; Florencia Mallon, The Defense of Community in Peru’s Central Highlands: Peasant Struggle and Capitalist Transition, 1860–1940 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983) and “Indian Communities, Political Cultures, and the State in Latin America, 1780–1990,” Journal of Latin American Studies 24 (January 1, 1992); Greg Urban and Joel Sherzer, eds., Nation-States and Indians in Latin America (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991); Alan Knight, “Racism, Revolution, and Indigenismo, 1910–1940” In The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940, edited by Richard Graham (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990); Remo Guidieri, et.al., eds. Ethnicities and Nations: Processes of Inter Ethnic Relations in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific (Austin: University of Texas Pres, 1988); and, Marie-Chantal Barre, Ideologías indigenistas y movimientos indios (Mexico City: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1983).

4  Viedma, Descripción geográfica; Jackson, Regional Markets and Agrarian Transformation; and Rodríguez, “Entre reformas y contrarreformas.”

5  Larson, ed. Explotación agraria; Gustavo Rodríguez, ed., La construcción de una región; Solares, Historia, espacio y sociedad; and Guzmán, Patrones, arrenderos y piqueros.

6  Irurozqui, “La amenaza chola,” analyzes the fears of the Bolivian elite in the early twentieth century regarding the image of the mestizo (cholo), who was perceived as a voluptuous and politically corrupt human being. Thérèse Bouysse-Cassagne and Thierry Saignes, “El cholo: actor olvidado de la historia,” Unitas, no. 5 (1992), explore the sociological clichés of modernity opposed to tradition which wiped the mestizo out of history.

7  Alberto Rivera, Los terratenientes de Cochabamba (La Paz: CERES/FACES, 1992) noticed a lordly and segregationist mentality among a sector of former landlords in Cochabamba; meanwhile, Rodríguez and Solares, Sociedad oligárquica, chicha y cultura popular, analyze the dialectic between the local elites and the popular sectors in regard to the territorial context and the social function of the chichería in Cochabamba city, in the early twentieth century.

8  “If the pubs were ‘symbolic oases’ of multiethnic contact and fusion, they may have served more to mask social differences than to subvert them.” Brooke Larson, Cochabamba, 1550–1900: Colonialism and Agrarian Transformation in Bolivia (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998): 365.

9  William Roseberry, “Hegemony and the Language of Contention.”

10  Gotkowitz, A Revolution for Our Rights, 4.

11  Rivas, Los hombres de la revolución, 71.

12  Thomas Benjamin, Revolución: Mexico’s Great Revolution as Memory, Myth, and History (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000): 20.

13  Boyer, Becoming Campesinos,11.

14  Daniel Nugent and Ana María Alonso, “Multiple Selective Traditions in Agrarian Reform and Agrarian Struggle: Popular Culture and State Formation in the Ejido of Namiquipa Chihuahua.” In Everyday Forms of State Formation: Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico, edited by Gilbert Joséph and Daniel Nugent, (Durham: Duke University Press, 1994): 228.

15  Sinforoso Rivas, 17 October 1996.

16  Knight, “The Domestic Dynamics,” 55.

17  Knight, 56.

18  Dunkerley, “The Bolivian Revolution at 60,” 329.

19  Boyer, Becoming Campesinos, 1.

20  Thomas Benjamin, Revolución, 19.

21  Boyer, Becoming Campesinos, 2.

22  Boyer, 3.

23  Gotkowitz, A Revolution for Our Rights, 5.

24  Sinclair Thompson, “Revolutionary Memory in Bolivia: Anticolonial and National Projects from 1781 to 1952.” In Proclaiming Revolution. Bolivia in Comparative Perspective, edited by Merilee Grindle and Pilar Domingo (Harvard and London: DRCLAS and ILAS, 2003): 117.

25  James Dunkerley, “Evo Morales, Alvaro García Linera and the Third Bolivian Revolution.” In Bolivia: Revolution and the Power of History in the Present, edited by James Dunkerley, (London: Institute for the Study of the Americas, 2007): 1.

26  Kevin Young, Blood of the Earth: Resource Nationalism, Revolution, and Empire in Bolivia (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2017): 11.

27  Kevin Young, (ed). Making the Revolution: Histories of the Latin American Left (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019: 3.

28  Leigh Binford, et.al. (eds). Fifty Years of Peasant Wars in Latin America (New York: Berghahn Books, 2020).

29  Binford, 7.

30  Binford, 8.

31  Forrest Hylton, “History, ‘Indigeneity’, and the Anthropology of Revolution in Bolivia.” In Fifty Years of Peasant Wars in Latin America, edited by Leigh Binford, et.al (New York: Berghahn Books, 2020).

32  Hylton, 175.

33  Hylton, 176.

34  Ben Nobbs-Thiessen, Landscape of Migration: Mobility and Environmental Change in Bolivia’s Tropical Frontier, 1952 to the present (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2020); Andrew Ehrinpreis, “Coca Nation: Labor, Indigeneity, and the Politics of the Coca Leaf in Bolivia, 1900–1962.” PhD dissertation, Stony Brook University, 2018; Nicole Fabricant and Nancy Postero. “Sacrificing Indigenous Bodies and Lands: The Political-Economic History of Lowland Bolivia in Light of the Recent TIPNIS Debate.” Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology 20 (3), (2015): 452–474; Thomas Grisaffi, “We are Originarios … ‘We Just Aren’t from Here’: Coca leaf and Identity Politics in the Chapare, Bolivia.” Bulletin of Latin American Research, Vol. 29, no. 4 (2010): 425–439; Hernán Pruden, “Cruceños into Cambas: Regionalism and Revolutionary Nationalism in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, 1935–1959.” PhD dissertation, Stony Brook University, 2012; Ana Maria Lema, El sentido del silencio: La mano de obra chiquitana en el oriente boliviano a principios del siglo XX (Santa Cruz de la Sierra: UPIEB, 2009); and Ximena Soruco, et.al. Los barones del oriente: El poder en Santa Cruz ayer y hoy. Santa Cruz: Fundación Tierra, 2008.