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A Common Hunger: Land Rights in Canada and South Africa: Index

A Common Hunger: Land Rights in Canada and South Africa
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table of contents
  1. Cover
  2. Half Title Page
  3. Title Page
  4. Copyright Page
  5. Dedication
  6. Contents
  7. Preface
  8. Maps
  9. List of Illustrations
  10. List of Maps & Acknowledgements
  11. ☉ INTRODUCTION
    1. Canada and South Africa
    2. Aboriginal Rights and International Law
    3. The Clearing of Lands and Languages
  12. Part One ☉ Dispossession
    1. [1] ☉ THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE
      1. The First Peoples of the Cape of Good Hope
      2. The First Peoples of North America
      3. Slavery in New France and the Cape Colony
      4. British North America
      5. The Cape under British Rule
      6. Frontier Societies
      7. Conclusion
    2. [2] ☉ LAND RIGHTS AND TREATIES
      1. Introduction
      2. Canadian Treaties
      3. Treaties in Colonial South Africa
      4. Discussion: Strategies of Land Alienation
      5. Conclusion
    3. [3] ☉ SOVEREIGNTY AND SEGREGATION
      1. Introduction
      2. Sovereignty and Constitutional Rights in Canada
      3. Assimilation in Twentieth-Century Canada
      4. Sovereignty in South Africa
      5. Pragmatic Segregation in South Africa
      6. Ideological Segregation: Apartheid South Africa
      7. The Struggle for Sovereignty in South Africa
      8. Challenging the Concept of Sovereignty in Canada
      9. Conclusion
  13. Part Two ☉ Reclaiming the Land
    1. [4] ☉ LITIGATION
      1. Introduction
      2. Aboriginal Rights Court Cases in Canada
      3. The Gitxsan and Wet’suwet’en of British Columbia
      4. Delgamuukw v. British Columbia: The Supreme Court Decision (1997)
      5. Aboriginal Litigation in South Africa
      6. The Richtersveld Case: Background
      7. The Richtersveld Community v. Alexkor Ltd. & the Government of the RSA (2000)
      8. Conclusion
    2. [5] ☉ NEGOTIATING RESTITUTION
      1. Introduction
      2. Reclaiming the Land in South Africa
      3. The Restitution Process in South Africa
      4. Challenges to Restitution in South Africa
      5. Case Study: The Mogopa Community, North West Province
      6. Rebuilding Communities
      7. The Conservation Factor
      8. The Case of Kosi Bay, Maputaland (KwaZulu-Natal)
      9. Negotiating Land Restitution in Canada
      10. The Lubicon Cree, Alberta
      11. The B.C. Treaty Commission
      12. Conclusion
    3. [6] ☉ SELF-GOVERNMENT
      1. Restoring Sovereignty
      2. Negotiating Self-Government in Canada
      3. The Sechelt Agreement
      4. The Inuit Peoples of the Northwest Territories
      5. The Nunavut Land Claim
      6. Reversing “Self Government” in the Former Bantustans
      7. Conclusion
  14. Part Three ☉ Dealing with Legacies
    1. [7] ☉ RESTORING DIGNITY
      1. The Hunger for Dignity
      2. Legacies of Dispossession in Canada
      3. Legacies of Dispossession in South Africa
      4. The Problem of “Invisibility”
      5. Land Matters: Restoring Dignity
      6. Conclusion
    2. [8] ☉ RECONCILIATION
      1. The Purpose of Public Inquiries
      2. Canada’s Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (1991–96)
      3. Critiquing the RCAP Process
      4. South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1996–98)
      5. Critiquing the TRC
      6. Reparations
      7. Uncovering the Truth
      8. Conclusion
  15. ☉ CONCLUSION
    1. Why Land Rights Matter
    2. The Task of Nation-building in South Africa
    3. The Power of Stories (Canada)
  16. ☉ APPENDIX
  17. Notes
  18. Bibliography
  19. Index
  20. Africa: Missing Voices Series
  21. Back Cover

Index

  • Aboriginal peoples (Canada). See also under Indians; Inuit; Metis; and names of Indian nations and bands
    • definition of, xv, 2
    • economies of, 2–3, 28–30
    • languages, loss of, 7–8, 10–16
    • migrations of, 27–28
    • miscegenation, 39–40
    • populations, 27–31
    • warfare, 28, 35–36, 44
  • Aboriginal rights
    • in Canada, 3, 6, 91–93, 98–105, 114–16
    • in South Africa, 1, 105–6, 109, 111–16. See also Aboriginal title (Indian title); Hunting and fishing rights; Sovereignty, aboriginal; Self-government, aboriginal
  • Aboriginal title (Indian title)
    • definition of, 61, 71, 98
    • in Canadian land claims, 17, 98–99, 103–4, 112–16, 135, 141
  • Aborigines (Australia), 207–10
  • Aborigines Protection Society, 43, 57–58
  • Acadia. See Nova Scotia
  • Africa, partition of, 6
  • African liberation movements. See Liberation movements (South Africa)
  • African National Congress (ANC). See also Anti-apartheid movements
    • banning of, 88
    • Codesa negotiations, 118, 162
    • election (1999) 163
    • founding of, 86
    • Freedom Charter, 87
    • government of, 3, 149
    • Inkatha Freedom Party, conflict with, 89
    • and land rights, 3, 86, 118, 136, 147
    • and traditional authorities, 86, 149
    • and the TRC, 182
    • Umkhonto we Sizwe, 88
    • Youth League, 86
  • African peoples. See also under names of tribal groups and nations
    • approach to land ownership, 50, 59
    • cultural identities, 21, 75–76
    • customary law and practices, 54, 76, 148
    • traditional economies, 3, 78, 169
    • warfare, intertribal, 56
  • Afrikaans language, xv, 2, 8–9, 215n5
  • Afrikaners, xv, 10, 72–73, 78, 80–81, 186, 200
  • Agriculture (South Africa), See also Livestock farming; Farm workers
    • arable land, shortage of, 41, 121, 169
    • bank credit, 79, 172
    • cash crops, 172
    • competition between black and white farmers, 78, 121
    • contract farming, 172
    • development resources, 124–25
    • farm subsidies, 79, 98, 173
    • “Joint Ventures” programs, 172–73
    • return of farmlands to claimants, 120–21, 123–25
    • sharecropping, 10, 78–79, 172, 203
    • subsistence farming, 3, 26, 83, 124, 128, 169
    • traditional farming methods, 124–25, 128
  • Agriculture (Canada)
    • Prairie farmers, 68, 78
    • in treaties, 48
  • Alberta, 27, 90, 92, 131–34
  • Alcohol
    • abuse of, 9, 133–34, 159, 167, 180, 191
    • in land allotment, 149
    • in treaty-making, 50
  • Alexander Bay, xi-xiii, 107–9, 114
  • Alexkor Limited, xi-xiii, 108–9, 113–14
  • Algonquin, 2
  • Allied Tribes of British Columbia, 98
  • Ambiculturalism, 213
  • American War of Independence, 36, 38
  • Anglican Church of Canada, 191–92
  • Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902), 73, 78, 85, 100, 200
  • Anishnabe See Ojibwa
  • Anti-apartheid movements, 87–89. See also African National Congress; Liberation movement (South Africa); Pan Africanist Congress
  • Anti-fur lobby campaign, 147
  • Apartheid. See also Bantustans; Homeland policy (South Africa); Human Rights
    • Canada’s version of, 70
    • evolution of, 79, 84
    • ideology of racial purity, 81
    • impact on land claims, 110, 113, 118, 120, 122–23, 125, 127, 136, 147–50, 152
    • influence of Nazi ideology, 80–81, 84
    • institutionalization of racial segregation, 74, 83, 87–88
    • international sanctions against, 89
    • laws under, 81, 105, 108
    • pass laws, 80, 86–87
    • rationale for, 82
    • social impact of, 198
  • Appeal Court of South Africa, xii, 113, 122
  • Arctic region
    • air bases in, 142
    • circumpolar region, 142, 145–46
    • economic development of, 142
    • exploration of, 31
    • European intrusion of, 142
    • land claims in, 130–31
    • missions to, 31
    • natural resources in, 130–31
    • oil and gas exploration, 130
    • peoples of, 42, 141–46
  • Assembly of First Nations, 92, 138. See also National Indian Brotherhood
  • Assimilation. See also Indian reserves
    • policy in Canada, 13, 63, 65–66, 68, 174
    • policy in the USA, 69
  • Attorney General of Ontario v. Bear Island Foundation (1984), 99
  • Australia
    • apology to Aborigines, 210
    • colonization of, 5, 207–10
    • land claims, 207–10
  • Band councils. See under Reserves
  • Bantu Areas Land Regulations (1969), 147
  • Bantu Authorities Act (1951), 148
  • Bantu Homelands Citizenship Amendment Bill (1978), 84
  • Bantustans
    • administration of, 119
    • chiefs, role of, 88, 148–50
    • citizenship of, 84
    • economic development of, 83–84, 161–62
    • employment of residents, 83–84
    • “independence” of, 83, 88
    • land tenure on, 121, 147–51
    • landmass of, 83
    • land claims in former, 119, 121, 123–24, 147–50
    • social services in, 84, 163–64
    • soil erosion on, 82
    • tribalization, 83
    • women, land rights of, 121. See also Homeland policy (South Africa)
  • Barunga Statement (Australia), 208–9
  • Basters. See Nama (Khokhoi)
  • Beaver, 38. See also Fur trade
  • Beothuk, 30–31
  • Berger, Thomas, 91, 130
  • Bering Strait, 27
  • Berlin Conference (1884–1885), 6
  • Berzborn, S.M., 110
  • Biko, Steve, 184, 201
  • Biodiversity. See Conservation areas
  • Bison, 47. See also Buffalo hunting
  • Black, use of term, xv
  • Blackfoot, 2, 27
  • Blankets
    • in Indian cultures, 67, 102
    • as metaphor for welfare, 168
    • small-pox infected, 35
    • in treaty-making, 35, 47, 212
  • Bloemfontein Convention (1852), 55
  • Boer republics
    • African land tenure, 54–56
    • allocation of land to white farmers, 54
    • in formation of the Union of South Africa, 2
    • treaties, 54–56, 69
    • treatment of Africans, 55
  • Boers, xv, 25, 54
  • Boomplaats, 120
  • Bophuthatswana, 83, 88, 122, 164
  • Boraine, Alex, 182
  • Botswana, 25, 122
  • Boycotts, anti-apartheid, 89
  • Breytenbach, Breyten, 188
  • British colonial policies (South Africa)
    • African franchise, 72–74
    • conquest of African peoples, 51–55
    • Khoikhoi, treatment of, 23–24, 32
    • slash and burn tactics, 51–52, 54–55, 57, 60
    • taxation, 60, 77
    • treaties, 54, 57 See also Cape colony; Natal colony
  • British Columbia, 98–105, 130, 134–35, 141
  • British Columbia Supreme Court, 101–5
  • British Columbia Treaty Commission, 104–5, 134–35
  • British Commonwealth, 1–2, 69
  • British humanitarian movement, 43–44
  • British Kaffraria, 54, 76
  • British North America. See also Treaties (British North America)
    • colonial settlement of, 45–46
    • military alliances with Indians, 34–36
    • Royal Proclamation (1763), 35, 38, 63
    • warfare against Indians, 35–36
  • British North America Act (1867), 63–64, 71, 91
  • Buffalo hunting, 40. See also Bison; Métis
  • Bulkley River, British Columbia, 100–101
  • Burton, Mary, 188
  • Buxton, Thomas, 43
  • Cairns, Alan, 174, 204
  • Calder v. The Attorney General of British Columbia (1973), 91, 98
  • Calder, Frank, 91, 98
  • Campbell, Maria, 168
  • Canada
    • Confederation, 1
    • description of, 1–2
    • laws and legal system, 71, 97 (See also Indian Act (1876))
  • Canadian Human Rights Commission, 173
  • Canadian Indian Land Claims Commission, 129
  • Cape Breton Island, 45–46
  • Cape Colony. See also British colonial policies (South Africa)
    • Khoikhoi, treatment of, 38–39
    • “liberal” franchise, 72–74
    • miscegenation, 39
    • settler-Xhosa relations, 49–51
    • treaties, 44, 58–59
    • Xhosa Wars, 49–52
  • Cape of Good Hope
    • under British rule, 38–39
    • under Dutch East India Company rule, 23–25, 32–33
    • original inhabitants of, 21–22
    • Portuguese explorers, 21–22
    • provisioning of ships, 23–25
    • racial hierarchy in, 32–33
    • slavery, 32–33
  • Cape Muslims, 33. See also Coloured people
  • Capitalism. See also under Economy
    • Africans as consumers, 75–76
    • in the new South Africa, 162–63
  • Cardinal, Harold, 61, 90
  • Caribou hunt, 31, 35, 48
  • Carstens, Peter, 108, 111, 167–68
  • Cartier, Jacques, 28
  • Casas, Bartolomé de las, 4–5
  • Cash crops. See under Agriculture
  • Cattle
    • culling program, 86
    • cultural significance of, 21, 23–24, 54, 86
    • grazing land, 86
    • in lobolo, 54
    • as source of food, 23, 170
    • in subsistence farming, 170
    • theft of, 23–25, 51, 53
    • trade with Europeans, 23–24
    • in treaties, 58–59;
  • Chickens, 123, 170. See also Livestock farming
  • Chiefs, power and authority of (Canada), 35–38, 57–58, 98, 101–3
  • Chiefs, power and authority of (New Zealand), 211–13
  • Chiefs, power and authority of (South Africa)
    • under apartheid, 88, 148–51
    • in the Boer republics, 54–55
    • under British colonial rule, 51–53, 55–56, 58–60
    • and land allocation, 149–51
    • in treaty-making, 58–60
    • in Zululand, 74–75
  • Children and youth
    • abuse of, 13–14, 169, 192, 210
    • and alcohol and drug addiction, 9, 159–60, 169
    • health care of, 163–64
    • infant mortality rate, 157, 163–64
    • as labour force, 24
    • malnutrition, 164
    • orphans, 164–65
    • residential school experience, 14–15, 179–80
    • “Stolen Generations,” 210
    • social conditions of, 159
    • and suicide, 168–69,
  • Cholera, 164. See also Diseases; Epidemics; Health services
  • Chrétien, Jean, 71, 134
  • Christianity. See also Missionaries
    • as justification for colonization, 23
    • and the Spanish conquistadores, 4–5
  • Ciskei, 76, 83
  • Citashe, I.W.W., 85
  • Citizens Plus (concept), 204
  • Civil and political rights of Canada’s aboriginal peoples, 63–65, 67, 69–72
  • Civil and political rights of black South Africans
    • under apartheid, 74, 80–81, 83–84, 88–89
    • post-apartheid, 89, 93
    • struggle for, 85–89
    • before Union, 72–74
  • Civil and political rights of Maori (New Zealand), 213
  • Civil war, threat of in South Africa, 3, 118
  • Cold War
    • impact on Indian policy, 69
    • NATO test flights, 92
  • Colonizers
    • land grants to, 24–25, 45–46, 51–53
    • notion of racial superiority, 7–8
  • Coloured people. See also Cape Muslims; Griqua
    • classification under apartheid, xv, 25, 40–42
    • land claims, 105–14
    • population, 1
    • reserves, 107–8
    • slave ancestry of, 33
  • Coloured Rural Areas Act (1963), 108
  • Columbus, Christopher, 4
  • Commando raids
    • capture of women and children in, 24
    • deaths resulting from, 24
    • against the Khoikhoi, 23–24
    • against the Xhosa, 50–54
  • Commission on Restitution of Land Rights (South Africa), 119
  • Communal Land Rights Bill (South Africa), 150–51
  • Congress of the People (South Africa, 1955), 87
  • Congress of Traditional Leaders in South Africa (Contralesa), 149–50
  • Conservation areas, 126–28. See also under Land
  • Constitution, Canadian (1982)
    • aboriginal rights, recognition of, 91–93
    • Charter of Rights and Freedoms, 71, 93, 144
    • interpretation of rights, 97
    • and land claims, 91–93, 117–18, 135–36, 197
    • reform process, 90–93
  • Constitution, South African (1996), 3, 92–93, 120, 125–26, 136, 151–52
    • Bill of Rights, 89–90, 193
    • and land restitution, 112–13
    • and Traditional Authorities, 147–48
  • Constitutional Court (South Africa), xii, 3, 97–98
  • Coon Come, Matthew, 15, 155–56
  • Convention for a Democratic South Africa (Codesa), 118
  • Copper, 22, 107
  • Corn, 27, 124, 169. See also Agriculture
  • Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation (Australia), 210
  • Cree
    • economic development, 132
    • language, 11
    • oral traditions, 11, 27
    • pictographs, 28
    • reserve lands, sale of, 88
    • treaties, 73, 91, 135–36
    • and wage labour, 68
  • Cremin (Ladysmith), 123–24
  • Cross, Ronald, 178
  • Cultural genocide, 10–11, 13–15, 132, 192
  • Davenport, Rodney, 124–25
  • De Beers Consolidated Gold Mines, 108
  • De Klerk, F.W., 118, 188–89
  • Defiance Campaign against Unjust Laws (1952), 86
  • Delgamuukw v. British Columbia (1997), 16–17, 72, 101–5, 111, 113–16, 197, 208
    • critique of 1997 decision, 114–16
  • Dene, 2, 31, 130
  • Department of Indian and Northern Affairs (Canada)
    • apology to First Nations, 190
    • land claims, processing of, 117, 129–30
  • Diabetes, 160. See also Diseases
  • Diamonds. See also Mines and mining; De Beers Consolidated Gold Mines
    • alluvial, xi, 1, 108
    • and cheap labour, 55–56, 74
    • discovery of, 41, 55, 74
  • Didiza, Thoko, 150
  • Diefenbaker, John G., 70
  • Dingane (Chief), 59–60
  • Dinkwanyane community, 120
  • Discrimination, racial
    • in Canada, 16, 155–60, 167–69
    • in South Africa, 9, 84, 161–67
  • Diseases. See also Cholera; Diabetes; Smallpox; HIV/AIDS; Typhoid
    • from contaminated water, 164
    • diet-related, 160
    • and poor sanitation facilities, 155–58, 161
    • spread by Europeans, 25, 31, 44, 46, 142
  • Domestic servants. See under Labour, African
  • Domestic violence, 133, 138, 167–69
  • Donkeys. See Transportation
  • Dongës, E.T., 56
  • Douglas, James, 46–47
  • Droughts, 51, 107, 125. See also Starvation
  • Dussault, Rene, 178–79.
  • Dutch East India Company
    • commando raids, 23–24
    • and indigenous peoples, 23–24
    • land grants to colonists, 106
    • provision station, establishment of, 23
    • slave trade, 32–33
    • treaties with Khoikhoi, 50
  • Earley, Mary Two-Axe, 138
  • Eastern Cape, 147
  • Economy
    • global, 155
    • informal, 169
    • market-driven, 162–63, 174–75
  • Ecosystems, 11, 125–28
  • Eksteenfontein, Richtersveld, 105, 109–10
  • Elephant hunting, 41, 126
  • Employment opportunities
    • of Indians, 68, 158–60
    • of Inuit, 142
  • Employment of Africans. See Labour, African
  • Epidemics, 25, 46, 56, 158, 164. See also Diseases
  • Erasmus, George, 138–39, 159–60, 177–78
  • Farm workers. See also Agriculture
    • eviction of, 78–80, 119–20
    • pass law offenders, 80
    • treatment of, 9–10, 80
  • Farms and farming. See Agriculture
  • Federal Bureau of Indian Affairs (USA), 190–91
  • Fires (bush fires), 132
  • First Nations Government Recognition Act (Bill S-16), 136, 174
  • First Nations. See Indians
  • First Nations University of Canada, 160
  • Fishing and fisheries, 10–11, 28, 30–31, 100–101
  • Flogging, 14, 56. See also Indian Residential Schools; Zuid Afrikaansche
  • Republiek (ZAR)
  • Fontaine, Phil, 15, 191
  • Forced labour
    • under apartheid, 80
    • in Cape of Good Hope, 24
    • in South America, 5
  • Forced removals
    • in Canada, 65–66, 131
    • in South Africa, 81–84, 122–23
  • Forests and forestry
    • clear-cut logging, 100–104, 134–35
    • in land claims, 102, 128
    • and logging companies, 100, 134
    • management of, 102, 128
    • and protest actions, 92, 100–101
    • wealth produced from, 158–59
  • Fossil fuel industry, 158
  • France. See New France
  • Free burghers
    • land grants to, 24–25
    • confrontations with San, 25
  • Freedom Charter, 87. See also African National Congress; Racial inclusiveness.
  • Friends of the Lubicon, 134
  • Fur trade, 10, 28–29, 31, 42
  • Gama, Vasco da, 22
  • Gazankulu, 83, 164
  • Genocide, 6–7, 43–44, 190–91, 208
  • George, Dudley, 193
  • Gildenhuys, Anthonie, 109, 113
  • Gitxsan. See also Wet’suwet’en
    • land claim, 2, 16–17, 99–105, 197
    • political and social organization, 28, 99–100
    • protest actions, 92, 98–99
    • sovereignty, 72, 102–3, 197
  • Glen Grey Act (1894), 76–77
  • Global economy. See Economy, global
  • Goats, 123, 170. See also Livestock farming
  • Gold
    • and cheap labour, 55, 74
    • discovery in South Africa, 1, 55
    • discovery in Yukon, 48
  • Goldstone Commission, 189, 223n71
  • Goose Bay, Labrador, 92
  • Government of National Unity, 89, 123, 147, 187
  • Governments, local, 139–41, 147–51
  • Grand River, Ontario, 36, 66
  • Great Trek, 50, 54, 56
  • Griqua
    • as frontier society, 40–41
    • elephant hunt, 41
    • language of, 2
  • Griqualand West, 41, 55
  • Grotius, Hugo, 5
  • Group Areas Act (South Africa, 1950), 81
  • Growth, Employment and Redistribution policy (GEAR), 162
  • Guerin v. The Queen (1984), 99, 111.
  • Gull, Chief Ignace, 158
  • Haida Gwaii. See Queen Charlotte Islands
  • Haida
    • economies of, 28
    • fur trade, 29
    • land claims, 2
    • protest actions, 92
  • Hanekom, Derek, 166, 199
  • Harper, Elijah, 15, 192
  • Hawthorn Commission (Canada, 1963), 63, 70
  • Health services
    • of aboriginal peoples in Canada, 142, 155–60
    • of black South Africans, 161, 163–66
    • Indian control over, 160
  • Hemson, David, 164
  • Herrenvolk ideology, 81. See also Afrikaner nation
  • High Court of South Africa, 98
  • HIV/AIDS. See also Diseases
    • among Canada’s First Nations, 157
    • response to pandemic of ANC government, 165
    • in South Africa, 164–65
  • Homeland policy (South Africa). See also Bantustans
    • Canadian criticism of, 139
    • conceptualization of, 83–84, 87–88
    • forced removals, 81–84, 122–23
    • international opinion of, 88
    • protests against, 83, 88
  • Horses. See Transportation
  • Hottentot Proclamation (1809), 39
  • Housing
    • on Indian reserves, 133, 155–58
    • in Nunavut, 142
    • in South Africa’s black townships and rural areas, 166–67, 171
    • subsidies for, 171
  • Hudson’s Bay Company, 31, 47
  • Human rights
    • protection of in Canada, 146, 197
    • protection of in South Africa, 98, 118, 199
    • violations of in Australia, 210
    • violations of in Canada, 3, 132–33, 156–58, 173, 181
    • violations of in South Africa, 152, 164, 182, 184, 187, 203
  • Hunters and gatherers, 8, 21–22, 30–31
  • Hunting and fishing rights. See also Aboriginal rights (Canada)
    • in Canadian treaties, 11, 45, 48, 103, 132, 144
    • protest against infringements of, 92
  • Huron, 28, 30
  • Hydro-electric projects, 91, 126, 140, 173
  • Indian Act (1876)
    • amendments to, 65, 70, 98
    • bands, registration of, 65
    • human rights monitoring, 173
    • Indian agent, role of, 64–65, 70
    • legal action, funding of, 98
    • legal status of Indians under, 65, 70
    • promulgation of, 64
    • proposed abolition of, 70–71
    • provision of reserves under, 63–65, 68–72
    • and women, 138
  • Indian diplomacy, 25–26, 47, 56, 73. See also Treaty-making, language of
  • Indian Reserves
    • administration of, 65–68, 140–41
    • agriculture on, 68
    • band councils, 65, 140
    • band leaders, 169
    • economic and social conditions on, 173
    • geographic isolation of, 158
    • purpose of, 64–66
    • relocation to cities, 91
    • sale or lease of by state, 68
    • suicide rate, 168
    • trapping and hunting on, 173
    • violence, culture of, 167–69
  • Indian residential schools
    • apologies for, 190–92
    • churches’ involvement in, 14–15
    • conditions in, 14, 179–80
    • court cases launched by survivors, 182
    • healing funds, 190–92
    • physical and sexual abuse in, 14–15, 180–82
    • public inquiry, call for, 180
  • Indians. See also Fur trade; Indian diplomacy; Indian Reserves
    • alcoholism, 133–34, 159, 167, 180, 191
    • attitude toward Europeans, 29–30
    • business enterprises, 130
    • cultural identity, 11–16, 65–67, 104
    • economic and social conditions, 3, 167, 173
    • enslavement of, 32
    • franchise, 69–70
    • intertribal warfare, 28
    • land, relationship with, 2, 57–58
    • legal status of, 65
    • military alliances with European powers, 36
    • political and social organization, 27
    • political protest, 3, 89–92, 132–34, 193
    • population, 1–2, 46
    • prison population, 167
    • religion and spirituality, 11, 14–15, 104
    • residing off-reserve, 138, 155–56
    • self-government, struggle for, 139
    • settlement in North America, 17–18
    • smallpox epidemics, 17–18, 89–91
    • trade with Europeans, 28–29
    • traditional economies of, 27
    • use of term “Indian,” xv
    • wage labour, 68
    • warfare against British, 35–36
    • west coast economies, 28
    • women, legal status of, 138
  • Infant mortality rate. See under Children and youth
  • Inkatha Freedom Party, 89, 149, 166. See also Zulus
  • Innu
    • land claims, 2
    • protest against NATO test flights, 92
  • Innu-Naskapi, 30
  • International solidarity, 88, 132, 145, 205. See also Anti-apartheid movement
  • Inuit of Northern Quebec land claim agreement, 144
  • Inuit Tapirisat Kanatami, 92, 142
  • Inuit
    • education, 16, 142
    • impact of Europeans on, 30, 142
    • health care, 142
    • land claims, 2, 143–47
    • political protest, 2
    • population, 142, 146
    • print-making and soapstone carving, 142
    • women, 30
  • Inuktitut language, 11, 16
  • Ipperwash Provincial Park, 193, 197–98
  • Iroquois. See also Mohawk
    • culture, 27
    • land claims, 2
    • land grants to, 36
    • military alliances with European powers, 36
    • sovereignty issue, 72
    • two-row treaty belt, 72
  • James Bay & Northern Quebec Agreement (1975), 91, 140, 173
  • James Bay Cree, 2, 140
  • Johnson v. McIntosh (1832), 6–7, 60–61
  • Johnson, Mary, 17
  • Judson, J., 97–99
  • Kahkewaquonaby (Peter Jones), 66–67
  • Kahnawake Schools’ Diabetic Prevention Project, 160
  • Kanesatake, Quebec, 92, 177–78
  • Katona, Jacqi, 210
  • Keate Award (1871), 54–55
  • Khoikhoi. See also Nama (Khoikhoi)
    • carrying of passes, 39
    • as labour force, 24, 32
    • language, 2, 8, 21
    • land rights, 21
    • legal status, 38–39
    • relations with Europeans, 8, 21
    • relations with San, 21
    • resistance of, 23–24
    • smallpox epidemics, 25
    • social organization, 21
    • women, 24, 201
  • Klondike gold strike (1898), 48
  • Kok, Adam I, 41
  • Kosi Bay, KwaZulu-Natal, 126–28
  • Kreli (Chief), 52–54
  • Krog, Antjie, 184, 186
  • Kuboes, Richtersveld, 105, 109–10
  • Kwagiulth, 28
  • KwaMakutha murders, 185
  • KwaZulu
    • bantustan, 83
    • and HIV-AIDS, 165
    • land claims, 123–24, 126–28
    • water resources, 164
  • KwaZulu-Natal Land Claims Commission, 124
  • Labour, African. See also Migrant workers
    • under apartheid, 86, 108
    • domestic servants, 9, 161, 203
    • and family life, 78–79, 103, 203–4
    • forced labour, 24, 60, 80
    • influx control, 80–82
    • in mines and industries, 73, 76–78, 203
    • and pass laws, 80
    • relations with white employers, 22
    • reserves as labour reservoirs, 55–56, 74–78, 161
    • strikes and demonstrations, 87–89
    • wages, 55–56
  • Labrador, 31, 92
  • Lamer, Antonio, 17, 99, 103–4, 114–15
  • Land. See also Land rights and ownership; Natural resources; Mineral rights
    • alienation by act of “discovery,” 5–6, 46
    • alienation by conquest, 24–25, 43, 50–51, 56, 212
    • alienation by treaty, 46–60, 211–14
    • conservation of, 3, 102–5, 129–30, 136
    • as cultural anchor, 79, 123–26, 132
    • economic development of, 130, 133–34
    • empty land myth, 57
    • evictions from, 79, 119, 126, 197
    • expropriation of, 100, 107, 126, 131, 212
    • and food production, 79, 123, 169
    • grants to settlers, 24, 45–46, 106
    • and resource management, 104, 129, 134, 169, 172
    • return to claimants, 118–21, 123–25, 128, 136, 169–73
    • state purchase of, 36, 119–22
    • as subsistence, 169–70, 197
    • surveys, 66, 107, 131, 163
    • territorial segregation, 63–65, 80–85
    • and tourism, 128
  • Land claims (Australia), 263–65
  • Land claims (Canada)
    • in British Columbia, 134–35
    • and compensation, 2, 148, 153, 156–60, 169
    • “comprehensive” and “specific” claims, 129–30
    • court procedures, 15–16, 101–4, 109–11, 115
    • history of, 98
    • international support, 132, 134
    • language of the courts, 12–15
    • negotiation process, 129–30
    • and self-government, 137–41
    • sovereignty issue, 100–103
  • Land claims (South Africa). See also Restitution of Land Rights Act (1994)
    • and aboriginal rights, xi-xii, 109–11
    • based on racial discrimination, xi-xii, 111–13
    • and case law, 111–13
    • and conservation issues, 125–28
    • deadline for registration of, 121
    • of farmland, 123–25
  • Land Claims Commission (South Africa), 3
  • Land Claims Court (South Africa), xii, 98
  • Land rights and ownership
    • in Australia, 207–10
    • and international law, 3–7, 43–44
    • in New Zealand, 46, 211–14
    • notion of terra nullius, 6
  • Land rights and ownership (Canada)
    • competition over, 134–36
    • hunting and fishing rights, 11, 35, 45, 48, 92, 103, 144
    • and international law, 46
    • mineral rights, 144
    • protest actions over, 92, 193
    • under the Royal Proclamation (1763), 36
    • and usufructuary rights, 34, 46
  • Land rights and ownership (South Africa)
    • African approach to, 50–51, 55, 58–59, 197
    • “black spots,” 80, 122–23
    • in Boer republics, 54–55
    • competition over, 136
    • in conservation areas, 128
    • and forced removals, 81–84, 122–23
    • in former Bantustans, 121, 147–51
    • under Glen Grey Act of 1894, 76–77
    • Land Charter (1994), 198–99
    • under 1996 Constitution, 120, 147–48
    • of women, 121
  • Langa, 87
  • Languages
    • of aboriginal peoples, 2, 7–15, 21, 26
    • loss of, 13–15, 67
    • in social services, 159
    • in South Africa, xv, 1, 9–10
    • in treaty-making (Canada), 47–48, 61
  • Lapsley, Michael, 189
  • Lazore, Gordon, 178
  • Lebowa, 83
  • Lekkersing, Richtersveld, 105, 109
  • Leliefontein, Namaqualand, 108
  • Liberation movement (South Africa). See also African National Congress; Anti-Apartheid Movement; Pan Africanist Congress
    • passive resistance against apartheid laws, 87–89
    • strikes and demonstrations, 87–88
  • Limpopo, 147
  • Links, Paul, 106
  • Livestock farming, 123, 149, 169. See also Agriculture; Chickens; Goats; Sheep
  • Logging. See Forests and forestry
  • Lubicon Cree, 92, 131–34
  • Mabo and others v. Queensland (No 2) 1992, 113, 205, 208–9
  • MacDonald, Sir John A., 65
  • Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Commission (1974–77), 14, 91, 130
  • Maine, Kas, 10
  • Maitland, Peregrine, 53
  • Malan, D.F., 74, 81
  • Malan, Magnus, 185
  • Maliseet, 13, 38, 40, 121
  • Malnutrition, 82, 157, 164–65
  • Mamdani, Mahmood, 184–87
  • Mandela, Nelson, 84, 87, 89, 118, 124, 187, 199–200, 201
  • Manitoba, 40, 58
  • Manitoba Act (1870), 40
  • Manuel, Trevor, 163, 187
  • Maori, 46, 210–14
  • Marshall, John, 6–7, 61
  • Matanzima, Kaiser (Chief), 88
  • Mayson, David, 171–73
  • Mbeki, Govan, 83, 88
  • Mbeki, Thabo, 155, 161, 200–201
  • McEachern, Allan, 17, 101, 103, 113, 208
  • McKay, Rev Stan, 15, 16, 134
  • Mercredi, Ovide, 205
  • Métis
    • aboriginal rights of, 1, 3, 91, 93, 168, 179, 196
    • as frontier societies, 39–41
    • population, 31, 215n4
    • rebellions, 40
    • and self-government, 137–39
    • social services to, 196
  • Mfecane, 56
  • Mi’kmaq
    • and the fur trade, 28–30
    • hunting and fishing rights, 92
    • land claims, 2
    • peace treaties with Britain, 44–46
    • population, 28
    • protest actions, 92
  • Migrant labour hostels, 166–67
  • Migrant labour system, 78, 80
  • Migrant workers. See also Labour, African
    • citizenship of, 83–84
    • and family life, 166–67
    • and HIV/AIDS, 166
  • Migratory Birds Convention Act (1918), 48
  • Milirrpum v. Nabalco Pty Ltd (1971), 208
  • Mineral rights. See under Land
  • Mines and mining
    • environmental impact of, xi, 131–32, 159
    • and expropriation of Indian land, 99
    • and land claims, 108–14
    • and migrant labour system, 108
    • residential compounds, 108, 166–67
  • Minwehweh (Chief), 35
  • Mission Stations and Reserves Act (South Africa, 1909), 107
  • Missionaries
    • as agents of government, 66–68, 75–76, 210–11
    • and consumerism, 75–76
    • impact on indigenous peoples, 4–5, 10–12, 31, 66–68
  • Mississauga. See Ojibwa
  • Mogopa community, 121–23
  • Mohawk, 66–67, 92, 177–78. See also Iroquois
  • Molgat-MacGuigan Commission, 90
  • Montagnais, 30
  • Moose, 48. See also Wildlife; Hunting and fishing rights
  • Morris, Alexander, 48
  • Mosala, Itumeleng, 194
  • Mostert, Noël, 8
  • Mpumalanga, 120. See also Transvaal
  • Mulder, Connie, 84
  • Municipal governments. See Governments, local
  • Museums, 8, 11, 12, 33, 201
  • Muslims, 33, 42, 188. See also Cape Muslims
  • Nama (Khoikhoi). See also Khoikhoi
    • community life, 110–11
    • history of, 2, 41, 105–6
    • land claims, xi-xii, 105–8
    • language, 8
    • social and political organization, 106–7
    • women, role of, 111
  • Namaqualand
    • coloured reserves in, 107
    • grants to Trekboers, 106
    • Rhenish missions, 41, 106
  • Namibia, 8
  • Nanaimo, British Columbia, 47
  • Nass River, British Columbia, 101
  • Natal Colony. See also British colonial policy (South Africa)
    • African franchise, 73–74
    • Kafir Commission (1853), 75
    • Land Commission (1847), 74–75
    • racial attitudes, 57
    • reserves, 74–77
  • National Indian Brotherhood, 91. See also Assembly of First Nations
  • National Indian Council of Canada, 129
  • National Party (South Africa). See also Apartheid
    • election (1948), 74
    • implication in apartheid era atrocities, 184, 189
    • influence of Nazi ideology, 80–81
    • policies of, 81–82
    • and the TRC, 182, 184, 186, 188–89
    • veto power in 1983 Constitution, 89
  • Native Council of Canada, 91
  • Native Land Act (South Africa, 1913)
    • as catalyst of African resistance, 86
    • evictions associated with, 79
    • implementation of, 79–80
    • promulgation of, 79–80
    • and restitution process, 105, 118–19
    • revocation of, 118
  • Native Trust and Land Act (South Africa, 1936), 79–80
  • Native Women’s Association (Canada), 138
  • Natural resources
    • as basic means of survival, 158–59, 169–71
    • management of, 100–104, 129–30, 158–59
  • Ndebele, 2, 83
  • Ndiza, Thoko, 121
  • New Brunswick, 1, 45, 130
  • New France
    • capitulation of, 34
    • fur trade, 29–30
    • military alliances with Indians, 34–38
    • and slavery, 32
  • New Zealand
    • colonization of, 5, 207, 211–13
    • Maori franchise, 70
    • Maori land rights, 46–47
  • New Zealand Native Land Court (1867), 212
  • New Zealand Settlement Act (1863), 212
  • Newfoundland, 30–31
  • Newspapers, African, 85
  • Nisga’a
    • culture, 15–16
    • land claims, 2, 91, 98–99
  • North American Indians. See Indians
  • North West Province, 121. See also Transvaal
  • Northern Province Land Claims Commission, 119
  • Northwest Rebellion (1885), 40
  • Northwest Territories Act (1908), 144
  • Northwest Territories Games Act (1918), 48
  • Northwest Territories
    • division of, 142
    • land claims, 130, 143–47
    • oil and gas resources, 91, 130
  • Nova Scotia, 1, 44–45
  • Nunavut
    • administration of, 144–45
    • economic development of, 144
    • land claim negotiations, 143–47
    • population of, 146
    • social conditions in, 146–47
  • Nunavut Act (1993), 143
  • Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act (1993), 143
  • Nunavut Tunngavik Inc, 145
  • Nungaq, Zebedee, 5, 143
  • Oil and natural gas
    • environmental impact of, 130–32
    • exploration of, 92, 130–32
    • revenues from, 130
  • Ojibwa
    • land claims, 2
    • language, 11
    • oral traditions, 27–28
    • pictographs, 28
    • treaties, 36–37
  • Oka Crisis (1990), 92, 177–78, 197–98
  • Okanagan reserve, 167
  • Oliver Act (1911), 66
  • Omniyak, Bernard, 132–34
  • Ontario provincial police, 193–94
  • Ontario Supreme Court, 99
  • Oral traditions
    • in land claim hearings, 15–17, 103–4, 109–10
    • public speaking, 15–16
    • stories and story-telling, 9, 11–13, 15–17, 200–205
  • Orange (Gariep) River, xi, 41, 109
  • Orange Free State (Boer republic)
    • African land rights in, 54–55, 72, 96
    • allocation of land to white settlers, 54
    • constitution, 72
    • independence, 55
    • racially-based franchise, 73
  • Orange Free State (Province)
    • African protest in, 86
  • Orange River Sovereignty. See Orange Free State (Boer republic)
  • Ordinances 49 and 50 (Cape of Good Hope, 1828), 39
  • Pan Africanist Congress, 88
  • Parliamentary Committee on Indian Self-government (Penner Report), 192
  • Pass laws. See also under Apartheid
    • under apartheid, 80, 87
    • in Boer republics, 55–56
    • in Cape colony, 55–56
    • under Dutch rule, 39
  • Paulette et al. v. The Queen (1973), 62
  • Pedi, 2, 55, 60
  • Peigan, 2
  • Plaatje, Sol, 79
  • Plains Indians, 47–48
  • Ploughs, horse-drawn, 123
  • Police and law enforcement (Canada)
    • arrests and detentions, 197–98
    • shootings by police, 193, 197–98
  • Police and law enforcement (South Africa). See also Vlakplaas
    • arrests and detentions, 88
    • deaths in custody, 184
    • under Dutch rule, 39
    • and pass laws, 39, 80, 87–88
    • and political protests, 86–87
    • Special Branch units, 184–85
    • shootings by police, 87–88
    • torture and brutality, 184–85
  • Pondoland uprising (1960), 83
  • Pontiac (Chief), 35
  • Population Registration Act (1950), 81
  • Port Nolloth, xi, 107
  • Potlatch, 15, 65, 70. See also under Songs and dance
  • Poverty
    • in Canada, 3, 147, 196, 198
    • and HIV/AIDS, 164
    • in South Africa, 114, 121, 125, 128, 136, 161, 163, 171, 198
  • Prairie farmers. See under Agriculture (Canada)
  • Precious Stones Act 44 (1927), 107
  • Presbyterian Church of Canada, 191–92
  • Privatization
    • of health care, 164
    • of mines, 108
    • of reserve lands, 108
    • of water, 164
  • Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949), 81
  • Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act (1959), 83
  • Public inquiries
    • in Australia, 210
    • in Canada and South Africa, 177–94
    • in New Zealand, 214
    • on residential schools, 180
    • on shooting death of Dudley George, 193
  • Quebec, 1–2, 90
    • land claims, 92, 130, 177–78
    • reserves in, 172
    • sovereignty issue, 90–91
    • treaties, 140
  • Queen Charlotte Islands, 10–11, 13, 29
  • R v. Van der Peet (1996), 99
  • Racial inclusiveness, 87, 199–201. See also Freedom Charter
  • Racial prejudice. See Discrimination, racial
  • Ramphele, Mamphele, 166–67
  • Rape, 166, 169
  • Reconciliation
    • in Australia, 210
    • in Canada, 177–81, 190–94
    • general principle of, 193–94
    • in New Zealand, 213
    • in South Africa, 177, 182–90
  • Reconstruction and Development Program (South Africa), 161–62
  • Regina v. Adams (1996), 112
  • Reparations (South Africa), 187–88
  • Reserves (Canada) See Indian reserves
  • Reserves (South Africa). See also Bantustans
    • and cheap labour, 74–75, 76–105
    • economic development of, 82–83
    • soil erosion on, 84
  • Restitution of Land Rights Act (South Africa, 1994), 109–10, 112–13, 117–24
  • Retief, Piet, 59–60
  • Rhodes, John Cecil, 76–77, 163
  • Richtersveld, xi-xii, 105–14, 205
  • Richtersveld Community v. Alexkor Ltd and the government of the RSA (2000), 109–14
  • Riel, Louis, 40
  • Robinson, William B., 46
  • Rock paintings
    • of Cree and Ojibway (pictographs), 28
    • of San, 21, 26
  • Roman Catholic Church, Oblate Order, 191
  • Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP)
    • critique of, 180–82, 193–94
    • government response to, 190
    • purpose of, 177–80
    • and the self-government issue, 139–40, 178–80
    • testimonies, 178–80
  • Royal Proclamation (1763), 35, 38, 63
  • Rupert’s Land, 5, 31
  • Rural life (South Africa)
    • reliance on natural resources, 170–71
    • subsistence food production, 169–70
  • Saalequun nation, 47
  • Sachs, Albie, 190, 193
  • Salmon fisheries, 100. See also Fish and fisheries
  • San
    • culture of, 8–9, 21
    • dehumanization of, 8
    • dispersal of, 25–26
    • Khoikhoi, relations with, 21
    • language of, 9
    • request for reserve, 25–26
    • resistance of, 25–26
    • rock paintings, 21, 26
    • as South African Defence Force soldiers, 8–9
    • story-telling, 9
  • Sanddrif, Richtersveld, xii, 105, 109–10
  • Sanitation, lack of
    • on Indian reserves, 157, 158
    • in South African squatter camps, 161
  • Sark, John Joe, 194
  • Saskatchewan, 48, 130
  • Saulteaux, 58
  • Schmidtsdrift, Northern Cape, 9
  • Sechelt band, 140–41, 146
  • Sechelt Indian Band Self-government Act (1986), 140–41, 146
  • Select Committee on Aborigines (British Settlements), 43
  • Self-government, aboriginal, 137–41, 143–52. See also Aboriginal rights (Canada)
  • Settlers. See Colonizers
  • Shaka (Chief), 56, 58–59
  • Shamans, 11, 26
  • Sharecropping. See under Agriculture
  • Sharpeville massacre (1960), 87–88
  • Sheep, 41, 106, 170. See also Livestock farming
  • Shepstone, Theophilus, 74–75
  • Slave trade
    • abolition of, 34
    • in the Cape of Good Hope, 32–34
    • in the East and West Indies, 32
    • and manual labour, 32–33
    • in New France, 32
    • in Nova Scotia colony, 34
    • and racial ideology, 32–33
    • legal status of slaves, 32–33
  • Smallpox. See also Diseases; Epidemics
    • in Australia, 207
    • in Canada, 17, 31, 35, 56
    • in the Cape Colony, 25
  • Smith, Harry, 54
  • Smuts, Jan Christiaan, 73–74
  • Songs and dance. See also Oral traditions; Potlatch
    • in African cultures, 21, 75
    • in Indian cultures, 11–13, 15–17, 65–67, 101
    • prohibition of, 14, 66–68
  • Soros, George, 174–75
  • Sotho, 2
  • South Africa Act (1909)
    • African franchise, 73–74
    • African land rights under, 77
    • African response to, 86
  • South Africa
    • description of, 1–2
    • economic conditions (post-apartheid), 160–66
    • languages of, 1–2, 8
    • laws and legal systems, 97–98
  • South African Coloured People’s Organization, 87
  • South African Constitution 1983, 88–89
  • South African Constitution (1996) See Constitution, South African (1996)
  • South African Congress of Trade Unions, 87
  • South African Department of Land Affairs, 109–13, 119, 121, 127, 171
  • South African Defence Force (SADF), 8–9
  • South African Indian Congress, 87
  • South African Lands Commission (1916), 79
  • South African Native Affairs Commission (1905), 77–79
  • South African Native National Congress, 79
  • South African Security Police, 185, 189
  • South African scrip, 100. See also Gitxsan
  • South West Africa People’s Organization (SWAPO), 8
  • Sovereignty, aboriginal. See also Aboriginal rights (Canada)
    • and international law, 81
    • Indian perspectives on, 92
    • and land claims, 81, 121, 128–32, 148–50, 209, 253
    • in New Zealand, 267–68
  • Spanish School, 4
  • Special Parliamentary Committee on Indian Self-Government, 140
  • Starvation, 17, 25, 31, 198. See also Droughts
  • Status and non-status Indians. See under Indians
  • Steinkopf, Namaqualand, 108
  • Stewart, Jane, 190–91
  • Stockenstrom, Andries, 52–53
  • Stories and story-telling. See Oral traditions
  • Subsistence farming. See under Agriculture; Women, African
  • Suicide. See under Children and youth
  • Suppression of Communism Act (South Africa, 1950), 87
  • Supreme Court of Appeal (South Africa), 113
  • Supreme Court of Canada, 17, 92, 97–99, 103–4, 112, 115, 117, 136, 174, 206
  • Surplus People Project, 125
  • Sweetgrass (Chief), 57–58
  • Tasmania (Van Diemen’s Land), 30, 208
  • Taxation (South Africa)
    • hut tax, 60
    • labour tax, 77
  • Te Wherowhero (Chief), 212
  • Tecumseh (Chief), 38
  • Teme-agama Anishnaby (Bear Island people), 99
  • Tenant farmers. See under Farm workers
  • Terra Nullius, 6, 208
  • Tobacco
    • as payment to Khoikhoi, 36
    • in treaties, 47, 212
  • Tomlinson Commission (South Africa, 1954), 82–83 87.
  • Totem poles, 12–13, 102
  • Totemic signatures, 36–37
  • Tourism, 128
  • Trade
    • in cattle, 21–22
    • in furs, 28–31, 38–40, 42
  • Traditional Authorities (South Africa), 86, 147–51
  • Transkei, 83, 88, 164
  • Transportation, 158, 170
  • Transvaal. See also Mpumalanga; Zuid Afrikaansche Republic (ZAR)
    • gold on Witwatersrand, 55
    • and land claims, 121–23
  • Transvaal Agricultural Union, 120
  • Trapping rights. See Hunting and fishing rights
  • Treaties (British North America), 44–47
    • giving of “presents” in, 34
    • language of, 36, 48
    • numbered treaties (Upper Canada), 46, 48–49, 58, 60, 74
    • of peace and friendship, 44
    • totemic signatures, 36–37
    • use of force, 47
    • verbal (outside) promises, 58
  • Treaties (Canada)
    • agriculture in, 46
    • hunting and fishing rights, 48
    • legality of, 56–58
    • proposed dissolution of, 61
    • rationale for, 56–58
    • treaty rights, interpretation of, 47–48, 129–30, 140
  • Treaties (South Africa)
    • in Boer republics, 54–55, 56
    • in Cape colony, 50, 52–56, 60
    • and retrieval of cattle, 52–56
    • use of force, 68
  • Treaty Number One, 46, 58
  • Treaty Number Two, 46
  • Treaty Number Five, 36–37
  • Treaty Number Eight, 48
  • Treaty Number Eleven, 48–49
  • Treaty of Halifax (1752), 44–45
  • Treaty of Vereeniging (1902), 73
  • Treaty of Waitangi (1840), 211–14
  • Treaty of Waitangi Act (1976), 214
  • Trekboers, xv, 26, 106
  • Trudeau, Pierre Elliott, 70, 0, 99
  • Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)
    • committees of, 182–83
    • critique of, 183–90, 193, 195
    • international response to, 184
    • purpose of, 177, 182, 188
    • testimonies, 183, 193
    • state records, 189
  • Tshabangu, Jacob, 119–20
  • Tshezi, Eastern Cape, 149
  • Tsimshian, 28, 98
  • Tuberculosis, 31, 157. See also Diseases
  • Tutu, Desmond, 143, 182–83, 188–89
  • Union of South Africa
    • African franchise, 73–74
    • African land policy, 77–78
  • United Church of Canada, 191–92
  • United Empire Loyalists, land grants to, 45
  • United Nations, 68, 156–57, 167
  • United States of America
    • apology for Indian policy, 190–91
    • assimilation policy, 69
    • Indian population, 27–28
    • military alliances with Indians, 35–36
  • Van Riebeeck, Jan, 23–25, 32, 84
  • Vancouver Island, treaties on, 46–47
  • Verwoerd, Hendrik, 81, 87
  • Vitoria, Franscisco de, 4
  • Vlakplaas, 185, 189. See also Police and law enforcement (South Africa)
  • Voortrekkers
    • confrontations with San, 26
    • definition of, xv
    • Great Trek, 50, 54, 56
    • monument, 201
    • Republic of Natalia, 60
    • treaties with Zulus, 59–60
  • Waitangi Tribunal (1976), 214
  • Walker, Cherryl, 124
  • Wampum belts, 72, 179, 212
  • War of 1812, 38
  • Water resources
    • contamination of lakes and rivers, 10, 102, 164
    • privatization of, 164
  • Welfare and Social services, 133, 147, 155–56, 158, 167–68
  • Western Arctic Claim Agreement (1984), 144
  • Wet’suwet’en, 2, 16–17, 72, 92, 99–104, 197. See also Gitxsan
  • Whaling, 30, 31, 144
  • White Paper (Canada, 1969)
    • as catalyst for Indian protest, 90, 98–99
    • terms of, 61–62, 71, 90, 129
  • White Paper on South African Land Policy (1997), 171
  • White South Africans
    • as beneficiaries of apartheid, 161, 163, 185–86
    • economic conditions, 160–61
    • racial attitudes of, 9–10, 74–78, 81–82, 84–85
  • Wildlife
    • in conservation areas, 126
    • decline in populations, 10, 41, 47–48, 159
    • fur-bearing animals, 10, 38, 132
  • Wineries, 172
  • Witzieshoek, Orange Free State, 86
  • Women, African. See also Domestic violence; Labour, African
    • business ventures, 201–2
    • and contract farming, 172
    • economic status of, 161, 165
    • and HIV/AIDS, 165–66
    • impact of white culture on, 76–77
    • as labour force, 9, 24, 79
    • land rights of, 121–22, 127–28, 136, 151
    • legal status of, 127–28
    • and subsistence farming, 78, 83–84, 169–73
    • as “surplus” labour, 166
    • traditional roles of, 111, 126–28
  • Women, Indian. See also Domestic violence
    • impact of white culture on, 65, 67–68
    • land rights of, 138
    • legal status of, 138
    • and social problems, 159
    • traditional roles of, 66–68
  • Woodland Cree, 133–34
  • Worcester v. Georgia, 61
  • Xhosa
    • culture, 26, 76
    • as farmers, 26
    • impact of missionaries on, 76
    • impact of conquest on, 51–54
    • language, 2, 9
    • political and social organization, 26
    • treaties with British, 52–54
  • Yorta Yorta nation, 209–10
  • Yukon, 48, 130, 144, 170
  • Zimbabwe
    • land crisis, 3, 120
    • land claim, 225n40
  • Zuid Afrikaansche Republiek (ZAR)
    • African land rights, 54–55, 73, 219n23
    • allocation of land to white farmers, 54
    • pass laws, 56
    • race-based franchise, 73
  • Zulus
    • culture, 26, 75
    • impact of missionaries on, 75
    • as labour force, 74–75, 166
    • land, loss of, 59–60, 123–24, 126–28
    • language, 2, 9
    • treaties with Voortrekkers, 59–60
    • warfare, intertribal, 56

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© 2006 by Joan G. Fairweather.
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