Notes

Introduction: Situating the Context

1 I use ‘western’/‘non-western’ terminology in this book. ‘Western’ means countries who have industrialized and who have taken on the values and beliefs of European society and are considered ‘developed’ in modernization terminology. This includes Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand. ‘Non-western’ countries are those who may or may not have industrialized but have kept much of their own values and beliefs and tend to be societies that are collective in nature. These countries are referred to as ‘underdeveloped’ in modernization terms. No terminology is perfect and I felt this was the best terminology to use.

2 The stool, in Ghanaian society, is carved from native hardwood and is used to denote the office of the chief or the king. Usually an important symbol is carved between the upper and lower sections of the stool. The symbol shows the degree of skill of the carver and the status of the owner (Sarpong, 1971).

3 Neo-liberal policies are defined as a set of economic policies that are dominating the world today. The assumption is that successful economic development can be obtained, and any country in the world can make it to the top of the economic ladder. The market is central in governing economic, social, and political life (Wilson & Whitmore, 2000). Multinational corporations influence social and economic policy and assume that they govern societies instead of societies governing them (Wilson & Whitmore, 2000).

4 The term ‘umbilical cord’ implies a dependent attachment to something for survival. A child is attached to the mother in the womb in order to stay alive. This metaphor challenges African social work to come out of the womb, detach itself from its mother, or western social work education and practice, and start to live and breathe on its own, growing and developing into its own unique structure.

5 When I use the term ‘research group’ in the body of the book, I am referring to the Ghanaian research group that was involved in my PhD research project.

I. Historical Context

1 Structural adjustment programs were implemented in many countries in Africa to reduce foreign debt. The programs include cutting government spending, increasing export, trade liberalization, devaluing currency, privatization, removing price controls and state subsidies, and balancing the budget. These programs were enforced with penalties if not adhered to by the country. Education, health, and social welfare were particularly affected by these programs.

2 The meaning of periphery in this context refers to the profession of social work as being outside the core of society. Society has not embraced the profession and made it one of its core professions.

II. Cultural Identity

1 Chancellor Williams, an African American, wrote the book The destruction of Black civilization, looking at the issues around the black race from 4500 B.C. to A.D. 2000. The book is a summary of sixteen years of research in which he did field studies all over Africa. He set out to answer the following questions: 1) How did all-black Egypt become all-white Egypt?; 2) What were some of the specific details in the process that so completely blotted out the achievements of the African race from the annals of history; 3) How and under what circumstances did Africans, among the very first people to invent writing, lose this art almost completely; 4) Is there a single African race, one African people?; 5) If we are one race or one people, how do you explain the numerous languages, cultural varieties, and tribal groupings: 6) Since, as it seemed to me there is far more disunity, self-hatred, and mutual antagonisms among Blacks than any other people, is there a historical explanation for this; and 7) How, in puzzling contrast, is the undying love of blacks for their European and Asian conquerors and enslavers explained? I found the book to be quite passionate, forceful, and angry. Some of his writing seems harsh, but I felt it was important to include it as an important work concerning the history of black civilization.

III. Hegemony of Western Knowledge

1 The term ‘hegemony’ comes from Gramsci’s understanding of cultural hegemony in which one social class or group dominates another and the dominated are oppressed.

2 Engelbrecht (2006) defines this term as “a migration or emigration of professionally trained individuals or knowledge workers … they leave for other nations, because of unfavourable conditions where they are living. It is a human capital flight, a term which refers to financial capital that is no longer invested in the country where its owner lives” (p. 129).

3 Sarvodaya (everybody’s welfare), Swarajya and Lokniti are Indian terms that reflect Ghandian principles.

4 Ghandian principles are: 1) complete unity and integrity of body, mind, and soul in the individual human being; 2) all social action should be governed by selflessness, non-attachment, nonviolence, and active service; 3) no society, state, or any other institution has any worth or importance apart from its part in contributing to the growth of the individuals of which it is composed; 4) the means are at least as important as, and often even more important than, ends; 5) Faith in God is the foundation of all moral values.

5 Aotearoa is the Maori name for New Zealand and when a New Zealander is asked where they come from, often they will say Aotearoa New Zealand to give respect to the indigenous peoples of New Zealand.

IV. Neo-Liberal Policies

1 The IFIs are divided into three categories: 1) Bretton Woods institutions; 2) regional development banks; and 3) financial institutions of the European Union. In the African situation, the Bretton Woods institutions, made up of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank Group, and the World Trade Organization (formerly GATT), are the important institutions for the African context.

2 ‘Structural adjustment programs’ were part of the IFIs’ economic plan for economic growth. When countries could not pay their debts, these programs were implemented so governments could pay back their debt. This did not work for African nations who were in debt from the time of independence. Their debts continued to rise despite the programs. What is important to social work is that some of the first programs affected by government cutbacks were in health, education, and social welfare.

3 Since 1996 two other reforms have occurred in this program. In 1999 a review of the initiative strengthened the links between debt relief, poverty reduction, and social policies. In 2005, a supplemental program, Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI), to the HIPC initiative was introduced to allow for a hundred per cent relief on eligible debts by the IMF, World Bank, and the African Development Fund for countries who completed the HIPC process.

4 The G8 is the group of the most powerful countries in the world. These countries are France, Germany, Japan, Italy, the United Kingdom, the United States, Russia, and Canada. The European Union has a representative as well. Due to the imbalance between the westernized world and the so-called developing world, France and the United Kingdom have expressed interest in adding five more countries: Brazil, China, India, Mexico, and South Africa.

5 THEMBA means hope in the Zulu language.

VI. Creating Culturally Relevant Education and Practice

1 A term used by the Brazilian educationalist, Paulo Freire. It refers to “learning to perceive social, political and economic contradictions, and to take action against the oppressive elements of reality” (Freire, 2007, p. 35).

2 At this point I want to say that in 1999 a group of stakeholders came together to look at revising the BSW curriculum and to create a MSW curriculum. The research group took these into consideration and were pleased with what had been revised. However, the lack of lecturers has meant that some of these courses have not been taught, and this again emphasizes the relationships between the economic policies of Ghana and their effect on education.

VII. The Future of Social Work in Africa

1 I want to recognize the important work that Wangari Maathai did for Africa and her fight to preserve the environment. Her 2011 death is a major loss to Africa.