Index
A
Abbey, Edward, 71
Abbot Pass Refuge Cabin, 355
Aboriginal challenges to modernism, 10, 13–14, 254–63, 294
Aboriginal Forum, 335, 348, 356
Aboriginal handicrafts and artefacts, 197, 203n51, 305
Aboriginal knowledge of place, 237, 254
Aboriginal land claims. See land claims
Aboriginal people, 74n2, 237, 239, 260, 286, 293. See also First Nations people
assimilating or enculturating, 293–94
challenged conventional thinking about national parks, 10, 14, 197, 257, 294
cultural attachment to Yukon North Slope, 277
doctrine of the vanishing Indian, 340
erasing native presence in parks and protected areas, 42, 260, 346
expulsion from national parks, 74n2, 77n40, 169, 244, 274, 296n6, 361n20, 364n39
forced shifts in government policies (See Aboriginal challenges to modernism)
introducing moral questions into conservation debates, 277
invisible to officials 100 years ago, 340
IUCN definition of wilderness (1987) and, 338
objected to tourist orientation of national parks, 283
reinstating in parks, 341, 347–48, 355, 378
‘special privileges’ for, 289
stakeholders in national park territories, 181
vote, 245
Aboriginal status as “citizens plus,” 260, 271n63
Aboriginal subsistence lifeway. See subsistence lifeway
Aboriginal title, 282, 284
Acadians, 14, 207, 211, 339
acceptance of lives after Kouchibouguac, 223–24, 228
artistic representations, 207, 211–12, 227–28
“authentic” residents idea, 216, 230n26
changes in Acadian society, 208
deportation, 217, 219, 223, 227
expropriation, 205, 208, 211–16
resilience, 227
willingness to stand up for Acadian interests, 211–12, 230n15
Acadie in twenty-first century, 229
L ‘Acadie l’Acadie?!? (1971), 230n15
Acadie nouvelle, 227
Africville, 208
Agreement-in-Principle. See Inuvialuit Land Rights Settlement Agreement-in-Principle (AIP)
Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Act (ARDA, 1966), 183
Aishihik Champlain First Nations
annual camps and teaching TEK, 347
Aishihik First Nation, 263, 264n1
Alaska Highway, 101n25, 243, 245, 256
Alberta, 68
expanded highway system, 134
Alberta Archaeological Society, 313
Alberta Heritage Act (1973), 311
Alberta Historical Resources Act, 311
Allmand, Warren, 286
Alpine Club, 55, 67, 373
Aluminum Company of America, 246
animal–human conflicts, 158, 164. See also bears
mauling incidents, 160, 164, 168–69
antelope, 5
archaeological research in the Rocky Mountain parks, 303–25, 377
ability to look at changes over time, 322, 325
basic culture history framework, 324–25
focus on placing people in a landscape, 304, 310
funding for, 321
Archaeological Society of Alberta, 308
archaeological staff in the Calgary Regional Office of Parks Canada, 304, 314
Archaeological Survey of Alberta, 311
archaeology, 10
architecture, 135
Arctic International Wildlife Range Society (AIWRS), 278
Arctic National Wildlife Range, 278
Arctic sovereignty, 10
ARDAs (Archaeological Resource Description and Analysis), 318
Arsenault, Aurèle, 228
asbestos mines, 246
Aseniwuche Winewak Nation, 356
Aspen, Colorado, 148
Astotin Lake, 69
Athabasca Forest Reserve, 352, 354
Athabasca Pass, 369n72
Athabasca River, 346, 356
Athabasca River valley survey, 317
Atikamac, Lake, 192
automobile campgrounds, 136, 274
automobile culture, 31, 39, 41, 153
dependence on industrial processes, 73
influence on animal-human relationships, 154
shaping of park design, 5–6
automobile road films, 158
automobile tourism, 5, 13, 60, 62, 71, 73n1, 134, 144, 375
local groups and, 59
priority for federal government for national parks (interwar years), 83
automobile tourism and bears, 154, 158, 164–65, 172
treatment in Bears and Man (1978), 170–71
wilderness ideal, 155
automobiles, 35, 41–43
originally prohibited in parks, 31
Auyuittuq, 8, 235, 282
Away from it all (1961), 162
B
back to nature movement, 4, 27, 72, 154
Baffin Island (Auyuittuq), 8, 235, 282
Ballade de Jackie Vautour (Richard), 227
Banff Advisory Council, 137–40, 145
Banff Archaeological Resource Description and Analysis (ARDA), 315, 317–18
Banff hot springs, 3, 15n6, 375
Banff National Park, 41, 334, 355, 381
archaeological resource inventory, 310
automobile campgrounds, 136
bison reintroduction plan, 323
coyotes destroyed by park wardens, 146–47
cultural resource management (CRM) position, 320
development as year-round resort, 140
dispossession of local Aboriginal people, 274
ecological integrity, 54, 149, 321
at epicentre of revolution in thinking about national parks (1960s), 133–34
first culture history sequence, 304
flagship of Canadian parks system, 3, 184
highway overpasses for wildlife, 54
initially created to protect resources for commercial use, 181
interpretive service, 146
local community cultural ties to, 135
management and management plans, 134, 141–42, 144–45, 149, 322–23
in national iconography, 3
occupation going back eight thousand years, 311
over-development, 133, 375–76, 379
park overcrowding, 7
Trans-Canada Highway twinning, 304
vehicular traffic, 136, 144, 160
Banff National Park new management plan (1988)
ecological principles directing, 149
Banff Park Museum, 355
Banff Park Museum National Historic Site, 305
Banff provisional master plan (1968), 144
ambitious program of new construction, 141
automobile tourists favoured over wilderness protection, 144
criticism of, 144–45
environmental groups opposition to, 142
increasing winter use, 141
Banff School of Fine Arts, 140
Banff Springs Hotel, 134, 136
Banff townsite, 54, 62
anger over Ottawa’s micromanagement, 29, 44
archaeological sites near, 323
Banff businessmen, 136, 139
Banff Chamber of Commerce, 137
described as large convenience store, 138
environmental awareness, 147
in late precontact period, 307
municipal status, 137, 139, 145
place of contact between BC Interior Plateau and plains people, 305
private residences, 118
properties owned through government leases, 136–37
reflects different eras of national park philosophy, 375 ( See also philosophy of parks)
sense of community, 135
Banff-Bow Valley study, 381
The Banff-Jasper Highway (Williams), 46, 371
Banff-Windermere Highway, 41, 61, 83–84
The Banff-Windermere Highway (Williams), 35
Banfield, A.W.F., 253
Banks Island, 282
Bathurst, 222
“Bear Confrontation Conduct”
deleted from Bears and Man (1978), 169
bears, 8
aggressing tourists, 158
“bear country,” 172
bear culls, 164, 169, 171 (See also predator control)
bear problem in U.S., 160
bear studies, 165
bear-proof garbage disposal, 164
begging along roadsides, 158
campground and wilderness, 165, 171
grizzly bears, 97
habituated, 164–65, 168, 170
“keystone” species in road landscapes, 158, 172
in mass-produced postcards, 155
mauling incidents, 160, 164–65, 168–69, 171
prominence in tourist-animal landscapes, 159
scientific understanding of bear behaviour, 168
“spoiled” bear, 169–70
tourist feeding along roadsides, 154, 158, 164–65, 171
Bears and Man (1978), 154
aim to maintain space in parks for humans and bears, 172
disassembled the bear-automobile landscape, 168, 171
First Nations’ voice in, 169
redefined space in a new “hybrid landscape,” 155
re-education of public, 172
scientific understanding of bear behaviour, 168
tourist bear-feeding scene, 170–71
viewers asked to “respect the bear,” 172
Beaufort Sea, 277–78, 282, 292
Beausoleil Broussard (band), 222
Beausoleil Island, 63–65, 76n28–29
Beaver Hills Ecosystem
integrated management with Parks and other stakeholders, 356
Beckers Bungalows, 343
Belaney, Archie. See Grey Owl
Bella, Leslie, 142
Bennett, R.B., 44–45
Bennett, W.H., 63–64
Berger, Thomas, Northern Frontier, Northern Homeland, 278, 281
Berger wilderness park proposal, 278
Best, Patricia, 170
Big Beach area, Prince Albert National Park
campers, 106
summer cottage subdivision, 105
Big Bend country, 80. See also Mica Dam
Big Bend Road, 83, 86
agreement (BC and federal), 81
construction camps, 82
dissatisfaction with, 88–89, 94, 100n18, 100n21, 101n27
eastern half flooded by Mica Dam, 95
publicity campaign (to lure American tourists), 88
replacement with highway through the Selkirks, 96
roadside timber reserve, 84
Bighorn (film), 168
Bill 85 (1911), 1
biodiversity, 355
biological science, 190, 381
ambiguous status in national parks management (1970s), 190
biologists, 135, 149
Bird, Dick, 161
bison, 68, 70, 323–24
black bears. See bears
Boat Encampment, 81, 83–84, 87, 95
area thrown open to logging, 96
destroyed by Mica Dam, 95
Bostock, Hugh, 250, 254
Bouchard, Lake, 189
Boudreau, Jules, Cochu et le Soleil, 217
Bourbonnais, Jean, 227–28
Bow River Valley, 310
Bow Valley, 42, 54, 315
Bow Valley Naturalists, 146–47
Bradley, Ben, 5, 379, 391
Brewsters, 136
Bridgland, Morrison Parsons, 348
Description of and Guide to Jasper Park, 34, 38
British Block cairn, 307
British Columbia, 83, 88
campaign to get Ottawa to build and maintain highways, 80, 84 (See also Big Bend Road)
created Hamber as a provincial park, 6
Dominion Railway Belt, 80
expanded highway system, 134
process for creation provincial parks (1940s), 89
resource-based economy, 81
unemployment rate (early 1931), 82
British Columbia Forest Service, 95
British Columbia Parks Branch, 94–95
Brooks, Lloyd, 116
Brown, Robert Craig, “The Doctrine of Usefulness,” 54
Bruce, R. Randolph, 61
Bryant Creek, 317
buffalo, 5, 244
Buffalo National Park, 68, 102n38, 379
removed from parks system, 69
Buggey, Susan, 354, 356
Bureau d’aménagement de l’Est-du-Québec (BAEQ), 183
Burwash Indian Band, 247, 249–50, 253
C
Calder case (1973), 282
Calgary, 61
Calgary Olympic Development Association (CODA), 140
Calgary Regional Office of Parks Canada, 314, 321
Calgary-Banff chapter of the National and Provincial Parks Association, 144
Cameron, G.I., 253
Campbell, Claire Elizabeth, 379, 391
Campbell, R.H., 29
Canada Land Inventory (1961), 183
Canada National Parks Act (2000), 11
Canada’s national parks. See national parks
Canada’s Unemployment Relief Camps, 82–83, 87, 99n5
Canada’s World Heritage Sites, 10, 376
Canadian Arctic Gas Limited, 281
Canadian Audubon Society, 142
Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (CEAA), 320–21
Canadian Forest Service, 185
Canadian Government Travel Bureau, 37
Canadian national identity
parks as symbol of, 340, 361n21, 372, 382n1
sentimental links to ‘the North,’ 281
“Canadian National Parks: Today and Tomorrow” (conference, 1968), 144–45, 183, 309–10, 338
Canadian National Parks Conference (Banff, 1978), 148
Canadian Pacific Railway, 15n6, 31, 99n3, 311
allure of national parks en route, 3
Banff Springs Hotel, 134, 136
Chateau Lake Louise, 136
marketing of Banff National Park, 375
mountain passes, 309
Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society, 16n19, 23, 142, 150, 270n55
influential environmental lobby, 8
support for Systems Plan, 381
veneration of J.B. Harkin, 55
Canadian Parks Service (1984), 2
Canadian Wildlife Service, 135, 146, 161, 256–57, 289, 292
opposed giving Indians formal claim to any part of a National Park, 253
opposition to development on Beaufort Sea coast, 277
Cannon, Lucien, 33
CANOL (Canadian Oil) Road, 245
Cape Breton Highlands, 210
‘Carolling Coyotes Kapowed,’ 147
Carpenter, Edward, 38, 43
Carrick, Bill, 161
Carrier people, 335
cars. See automobiles
Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring, 135
Cascade fire road, 141
cattalo, 68
cattle grazing, 354–55
Catton, Theodore, 275
Cave and Basin National Historic Site, 355
Champagne First Nation, 263, 264n1
Chapman, Christopher, 163–64
Chateau Lake Louise, 136
Chrétien, Aline, 8
Chrétien, Jean, 8, 103, 141, 146, 235, 237
attempt to revise national park leasing regulations, 122
fervent promoter of national parks, 183–84
overturned Lake Louise ski hill plan, 148
on private use of public lands, 122
on scientific research in national parks, 190
second thoughts about Waskesiu plan, 123
Christensen, Ole, 310, 317, 324
citizen involvement, 119, 381
“citizens plus,” Aboriginal status as, 260, 271n63
civil disobedience, 205, 284
civil society
focus on parks’ commercial potential (1910s and 1920s), 72
role in promoting and expanding national parks, 55, 59
civil society wilderness advocacy groups, 154
Clark, C.H.D., 244–45
Clarke, (Superintendent of Rocky Mountains Park), 305
Clearwater River valley, 317
Clovis spear points, 311
Cluny Earthlodge, 307
Cochu et le Soleil (Boudreau), 217
Coleman, A.P., 117
Glaciers of the Rockies and Selkirks, 34
Coleman, J.R.B., 115, 160, 165
Colpitts, George, 8, 147, 190, 274, 391
Columbia Icefields, 373
Columbia Icefields interpretive centre, 343
Columbia River, 81, 94–95
Columbia River sturgeon, 97
Columbia River Treaty, 95
co-management with Aboriginal peoples, 275, 292, 294, 296n7, 337, 341
Committee for Original Peoples’ Entitlement (COPE). See COPE
compensation, 214–15, 368n66
for loss of commercial fishing rights, 212, 230n15
Métis families in Jasper, 335–36
Complainte du parc Kouchibouguac (Leblanc), 220–21
conservation, 4, 22–23, 55, 64, 133–34, 138, 270n55, 288, 293, 374
COPE commitment to, 285
early twentieth-century conservation, 27, 334, 339, 356
evolving nature of, 355
idea developed by Harkin, 22
Inuit and First Nations suspicion of government conservation plans, 283, 286, 290
Inuvialuit land claim and, 294
local harvesting and, 284
mixed conservation regime in the northern Yukon, 292
new set of rules for, 288
opposition to industrial activity or hunting, 67
second conservation movement, 142, 334
Consolidated-Bathurst Limited, 185
Cooking Lake-Blackfoot Grazing, Wildlife and Provincial Recreation Area, 354
COPE, 282, 286–87, 293
ambivalence about state conservation, 286, 290
belief that protected areas could serve long-term needs, 293
breakdown in negotiations, 290
committed to conservation, 285
demanded employment opportunities in the park, 287
desire to preserve wildlife habitats, 293
determined to ensure conservation practised according to a new set of rules, 288
distrustful of federal conservation practices, 285
exclusive rights to hunt and trap within park boundaries, 287, 289
importance attached to wildlife and habitat conservation, 288
Inuvialuit land claim, 283
opposition to ideal of ‘uninhabited wilderness,’ 275
proposed a National Wilderness Reservation for Yukon North Slope, 291
rejected government proposals for protected areas in the region, 283
copper, 246
Cormier, Linda, 225
cormorants, 356
Cornwall, 314
Coudert, J.L., Bishop, 251
Council for Yukon Indians, 262
coyotes, 146–47
CPR. See Canadian Pacific Railway
Crag and Canyon, 29, 44, 136–37, 139, 146, 148
‘Carolling Coyotes Kapowed,’ 147
Craig-Dupont, Olivier, 8, 145, 274, 346, 381, 391
Craighead, John and Frank, 168
Cree, 335
Crerar, Thomas, 87, 110
CRM. See cultural resource management (CRM) archaeology
Cronin, Keri, 155
Cronon, William, 340
“The Trouble with Wilderness,” 180
Uncommon Ground, 339
Cross, Austin, 88
Crowsnest Pass, 62, 310
Cruikshank, Julie, 275
cultural colonialism, 199
cultural heritage, 196, 260, 292, 335, 339, 343–44, 346, 356, 377–78
cultural landscapes, 10–11, 14, 325, 356, 363n37
protected areas as, 277, 297n10
cultural pluralism, 377
cultural relationships, negotiation of, 263–64
cultural resource management (CRM) archaeology, 304, 320–24
culture
privileging nature over, 377
Culturing Wilderness in Jasper National Park (2007), 348
Cyprus Anvil lead/zinc open pit mine, 246
D
Dalton Post, 244
David Thompson Highway, 141
Davidson, Al, 148
Davis, T.C., 62
Davis, Tommy, 105
Dawson, 246
Dawson News, 245
Dempster, Harry, 115
Dempster Highway, 245
Department of Archaeology at the University of Calgary, 308, 310
Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 287, 289
Department of Heritage, 11
Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. See DIAND
Department of National Defence, 83, 87
Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources, 7, 116–18, 135, 163
Department of Sociology and Anthropology at the University of Alberta, 308
Department of the Environment, 11, 287, 289
Department of the Interior, 2, 4, 7, 26, 58, 61, 68, 70
deportation and Kouchibouguac link, 217, 219, 223, 227
Désaulniers Club, 189
Description of and Guide to Jasper Park (Bridgland), 34, 38
Desmeules, Pierre, 191
DIAND, 7, 11, 103, 124, 183, 289–90
determined to meet needs of the oil and gas industry, 277, 290
Dick, Lyle, 274, 341, 392
Diefenbaker, John, 14, 122, 125, 129n13, 130n43
“Northern Vision” of development and progress, 246
represented Prince Albert riding, 117
Dieppe, 226
Dinosaur Provincial Park, 355
Dinsdale, Walter, 117–18, 258
Divide Creek, 324
Divide Creek and Red Deer River junction, 317
DNA, 323–24
doctrine of the vanishing Indian, 340
“The Doctrine of Usefulness” (Brown), 54
Dominion Forest Reserves and Parks Act (1911), 4, 28, 58, 367n61
amendments (1913 and 1914), 30
Dominion Forestry Branch, 4
Dominion Lands Act, 58
“Dominion Parks – Their Values and Ideals” (Harkin), 32
Dominion Parks Branch, 2, 4–5, 25–27, 55, 58–59, 71, 181
accomplishments, 44
alliance with the landscape artist, 29
annual reports, 33
commercial potential, focus on, 68, 72
created auto-accessible parks, 41, 60
environmental or resource management, 44
facilitated private sector development of resort towns in national parks, 60
guidebooks (1920s), 22, 35, 39
lobbying from local groups, 60
parks roadbuilding (1920s), 41
preservationist and pro-development policies (simultaneously), 5, 59
preservationist philosophy, 5, 59–60, 68
promotional literature, 33 (See also guidebooks)
promotional literature (1920s), 34
Publicity Division, 7n407, 35, 37, 66–67
road building, 41, 60
tourism, promotion of, 31, 34, 60, 68
wildlife protection, 69
Domtar, 185
doublespeak or whitewashing, 206, 229n2, 364n44
Douglas, Howard, 28, 58
Douglas, Robert, 34
downhill skiing, 139
Drummond Glacier, 324
dual mandate of development and preservation, 5, 7, 11, 59, 163, 273, 334, 375
E
Easagaming (resort town), 65
ecological characterizations for national parks, 124, 145, 191. See also zoning in parks management
ecological diversity, 8
“ecological Indian,” 169
ecological integrity, 6, 54, 127, 149, 321–23, 333–34, 346
criticisms, 383n12
as focus of national parks, 127, 149, 376
Parks Canada definition, 17n21
ecological restoration, 320, 356
ecological science, 13, 190, 320–24
ecological stress in Canada’s national parks, 11, 376
ecological studies, 144
ecology, 191, 309
emphasis on ecology as non-human nature, 12
humans as threat to, 66, 363n36
economic downturn (1930), 81–82
ecosystem-based model, 375–76
Edgecombe, G.H., 354
education as part of Parks Canada mandate, 364n40
Elders of the Descendants of Jasper National Park (EDJNP), 348, 356
elk, 5
Elk Island, 68, 77n46
Elk Island National Park, 28, 68–69, 356
elk kill site on Banff Springs golf course, 323
Elsipogtog First Nation, 207
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 180
Endangered Spaces campaign, 16n19
The Enduring Wilderness (1963), 163–64
engineering, 134–35
Enlightenment thought, 260
environmental assessments, 320
environmental concerns, 168
environmental history, 19n29
environmental protection, 8, 12, 278
conflict with tourism / recreation usage, 7, 71, 374
displacement of resident communities and, 293
environmental thought and practice, 3
environmentalists, 72, 135, 142, 148
American environmental movement, 142, 376
opposition to development on Beaufort Sea coast, 277
response to Banff provisional master plan (1968), 142
use of Berger report, 281
erasing native presence in parks and protected areas, 42, 260, 346
Essex County Wild Life Association, 70
Etherington, Wilf, 169, 178n58
ethnicity and class, 338
European criticism of wilderness / no people perspective, 340
Evangeline, 217
L ‘Évangéline, 217, 224
expropriation, 284. See also Métis families in Jasper
recognized as counter-productive, 216
resistance to, 208, 211–16
F
failed parks, 5, 79–98, 379
Faro, 246
federal land claim policy. See land claims
Fedje, Daryl, 315, 317, 324
Fenton, Greg, 348
Findlay/Finlay family, 335
Finlayson, Ernest, 354
First Nations hunting privileges in Wood Buffalo National Park, 360n17
First Nations people, 3, 196, 206–7, 247, 286. See also Aboriginal people
attempt to make conservation officials respect local harvesting, 284
blamed for decimation of big game, 42
collaboration with, 346
concern that creation of new national parks would deny Aboriginal title, 284
“ecological Indian,” 169
in elk cull planning in Banff, 365n49
exclusion from national parks, 169, 296n6
Indians defiled by contact with modernity, 251, 254
parks created in negotiations with, 325
suspicious of government conservation programs, 283
treatment by Parks Branch, 39
voice in Bears and Man (1978), 169
Forbis, Richard, 307, 311
An Introduction to the Archaeology of Alberta, Canada, 308
forest reserves, 4, 27–28, 44
Forestry Branch, 28–29, 58
Forillon National Park, 183, 210
Fort St. James, 312
Fortifications of Quebec, 312
Fortress Lake, 97
Fortress of Louisbourg, 312
Foster, Janet, Working for Wildlife, 55
Franchére, Gabriel, 38
Fry, A.E., 256
Fuller, W.A., 257
Fund for Rural Economic Development (FRED, 1966), 183
Fundy, 210
fur trade, 238, 346
fur trade site restoration, 312, 314
G
Gauchier family, 352
Geological Survey of Canada, 305, 315
George, Dan, Chief, 169, 172
Georgian Bay Islands National Park, 14, 64–66
Gertrude (submerged in Emerald Bay in Waterton), 320
Gibbon, J.E., 249
Gibson, A.H., 253
Gibson, R.A., 243
GIS technology, 304, 318–19, 325
Glacier National Park, 27, 58, 81, 334
bear studies, 165
Glaciers of the Rockies and Selkirks (Coleman), 34
Gladieux family, 352
Glassco Report, 135
Glenbow Foundation of Calgary, 307–8
Globe and Mail, 119, 215
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 39
gold fields, 239, 246, 258
Golden, 41, 81, 95
Grace, Sherrill, 275
Grand-Mère plantation, 192, 202n23
Gray, R.C., 191–92, 194
Great Depression, 6, 25, 44
Great Smoky Mountains, 158, 165
Green, Herbert U., 67
Grey Owl, 46, 67
Grieve, Edward, 185
grizzly bears, 97
Gros Morne, 8
Group of Seven, 180
Guardians of the Wild (Williams), 43, 46
guidebooks, 34, 38–39, 41–42
Guimond, Doris, 228–29
Gwich’in peoples, 277, 291
demanded end to oil and gas activity on their trapping grounds, 278
H
Habbakuk (in Jasper), 320
habituated bears, 158, 164–65, 168, 170
Haggart, Alexander, 1–2
Halifax, 314
Hamber Provincial Park, 5–6, 93–94, 100n24
complicated relationship with highway, 97
creation of, 89, 93
deletion of, 96–97
example of failed park, 80
gambit to involve Ottawa in development of Selkirk region, 199
mining and logging permitted, 95–96
part of BC campaign for federal building of highways, 80, 97
timber sales, 101n32
Hamilton, Alvin, 117, 270n55
Hand, Bob, 147
Harkin, James B., 4, 22, 29, 31, 35, 61, 106, 273, 305, 371–72, 380
annual reports, 33, 43
asked to resign by R.B. Bennett, 44
Canada’s early policies on national parks, 373–74
conservation, 22–23, 55, 64, 133–34, 138
“Dominion Parks – Their Values and Ideals,” 32
environmental hero status, 23, 55
established Canada’s national commemorative program, 374
goal of fostering an “informed public opinion,” 382
hybrid vision, 374
memories compiled and published by Williams, 24
middle ground between development and protection, 64, 133–34, 138
National Park must possess spectacular landscape and recreational potential, 99, 181
publicity, 34, 39, 43, 382
on regional equity, 66
request for salt licks near the highway, 62, 158
road development, 60, 65
on special treatment for Waskesiu, 110, 114
success in creating a national system, 58–59, 374
tourism, promotion of, 55, 65 (See also automobile tourism)
work on housepit village site near Banff Springs golf course, 307
Harkin Award, 23
Harmon, Byron, 155
Harmons, 136
Harvie, Eric L., 307
Hatfield, Richard, 215, 221, 228
“Healing Broken Connections,” 347
Henberg, Marvin, 338
Henderson, Norman, 377
Henry, Percy, 247
heritage legislation, 304
Heritage River designation, 346, 356
Herrero, Stephen, 158, 168, 171
Herridge, Mary Bird, 45–46
Herridge, William Duncan, 46
high modernist planning, 229n5, 245, 274
highway tourism. See automobile tourism
historic archaeology, 312–13
historic reconstruction projects, 312
Historic Resources Impact Assessments (HRIA), 313
Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada, 374
Historical Parks, 6
The History and Meaning of the National Parks of Canada (Harkins memoirs), 46
Hooper, Ron, 348
housepit sites, 305, 307, 315, 317, 323–24
Howse Pass, 141
human creations, 2, 11
human place in nature, 294, 309, 337, 339, 350, 355, 376
human presence in national parks, 42, 185, 190, 260, 273–74, 285. See also erasing native presence in parks and protected areas; people as a problem
extends back to remote antiquity, 377
privileged vs. outlawed activity, 273
human rights, 338–39, 354
hunting and trapping rights, 243, 247, 250, 253, 260n17, 287, 354. See also subsistence hunting within park boundaries
I
Icefields Parkway, 134
Imperial Oil, 148
In Trust for Tomorrow: A Management Framework for Four Mountain Parks (1986), 149
Indian Act, 260
Indian Affairs and Northern Development. See DIAND
Indians. See Aboriginal people; First Nations people
Indigenous people. See Aboriginal people; First Nations people
individual, liberal belief in, 260
industrial activities. See also oil exploration in the Beaufort Sea
forbidden under National Parks Act (1930), 6
industries as stakeholders in national park territories, 181
intergovernmental politics, 5, 80
“Interior Dry Plateau Region,” 17n19
“An Interminable Ode,” 21
International Union for Conservation of Nature. See IUCN
An Introduction to the Archaeology of Alberta, Canada (Forbis), 308
Inuit. See also Aboriginal people
attempt to make conservation officials respect local harvesting, 284
suspicion of government conservation programs, 283
Inuit Tapirisat of Canada (ITC), 282
Inuvialuit Final Agreement (IFA, 1984)
accommodated Inuvialuit interests and cultural values, 292, 377
allowed industrial activities along Beaufort Sea coast, 292
co-management body established by, 292
conservation and industrial development (new rules), 293
Inuvialuit hunters, 287. See also subsistence lifeway
conflicts with oil companies in the Beaufort Sea, 282
prosecution under Migratory Birds Convention Act, 286
Inuvialuit land claim, 283, 285–86, 294, 377
Inuvialuit Land Rights Settlement Agreement-in-Principle (AIP), 287
denunciation of, 290
Inuvialuit negotiators. See COPE
Inuvialuit Nunangat, 283, 285
Inuvialuit people, 277, 282, 286
challenged Canadians to relook at human place in nature, 294
committed to conservation, 285
cultural attachments to Yukon North Slope, 277
perceptions of national parks, 287
Iroquois, 335
IUCN, 337
IUCN categorization of protected areas, 341, 357n1
IUCN Category II designation, 333, 337, 355
IUCN Category V designation, 343, 354–55, 360n19, 362n31, 362n35
“Eurocentric concept,” 339
retain but not rejuvenate cultural practice, 335
IUCN definition of wilderness (1987)
support for genocide and dispossession of Natives, 338
Ivvavik National Park, 10, 14, 275, 377. See also Northern Yukon National Park
J
The Jack Pine (Thomson), 180
Jackson, F.H.R., 250
Jackson, Mary, 122–23, 126
Jacquot brothers, 250–51
Jasper Forest Park, 335
Jasper House National Historic Site, 317
Jasper National Park, 27, 34, 184, 317, 334
Aboriginal Forum, 335, 348, 356
archaeological resource inventory, 310, 343
ARDA, 318
cultural camp (proposal), 343–44
Cultural Resource Management (CRM) position, 320
cultural values of Euro-Canadians preserved, 344, 346
cultural values of Métis and First Nations people neglected, 343–44
enlarged (1914), 30
fur trade history, 344, 346
habituated campground bears, 164
initially created to protect resources for commercial use, 181
IUCN Category II designation, 333
Métis families in, 14, 335–36, 343–44, 350
Jasper National Park (Williams), 35, 38
Jasper Park Lodge, 343
Jasper townsite, 118, 343
Jasper Trails (Williams), 35
Jeckell, H.A., 242
Jesup North Pacific Expedition, 305
Joachim, Adam, 367n61
Joachim family, 335
Johnson, Mary Jane, 258
Johnson, Pauline, 39
Johnston Canyon Campground, 136
Johobo copper mine, 246
Jones, Steve, 162
“just society,” 260
K
Kathleen Lake, 245
Kejimkujik National Park, 8, 16n11
Kent County, New Brunswick, 208, 210
Kerr, R.D., 111
Kicking Horse Pass, 309
Kicking Horse Trail, 41
The Kicking Horse Trail (Williams), 35, 41–42
Kinbasket Lake, 83–84, 87, 94–96
Kinbasket Reservoir, 97
King, William Lyon Mackenzie, 62, 130n43
dedication of Prince Albert National Park to “the average man,” 122
role in establishing Prince Albert National Park, 105, 128n7, 129n13
Kingston Whig Standard, 160
Kjar, Them, 247, 253
Klondike gold rush, 238, 246, 258
Kluane, 7–8, 10
Clark’s report on, 244–45
core/reserve idea, 257–58, 262
“grandeur” as befitting a national park, 244
marks transition in role of national parks, 263, 377
Kluane First Nation, 264n1
Kluane First Nations (agreements signed 2003), 263
Kluane Game Sanctuary, 247, 283
boundaries extended to Alaska Highway, 256
hunting in, 243–44, 249–50, 253
open for prospecting, staking, and mining, 244, 246
special reserve for Indian hunting and trapping (suggestion), 243
Kluane gold rush, 258
Kluane mountain named for John Kennedy, 258, 260
Kluane National Park (established 1995), 262–63, 283, 347–48
Kluane National Park Reserve, 235–64, 377
Klukshu, 244
Koidern River, 256
Kootenay National Park, 41, 61, 83–84, 86, 334
Kootenay National Park and the Banff-Windermere Highway (Williams), 35
Kopas, Paul, 274
Taking the Air, 8
“Kouchibouguac” (Roussel), 217
Kouchibouguac (1979), 220–22, 224, 227
Kouchibouguac (2007), 207, 227–28
Kouchibouguac National Park, 8, 10, 14, 125, 205–29
Acadians return to, 224–29
creation of, 205
expropriations, 205, 208, 211–16, 284
formal opening (1979), 215
government’s willingness to buy social peace, 214
integration of Acadians’ stories into programs, 377
Special Inquiry, 214–16, 224, 229n4, 337
“Kouchibouguac ou le grand déracinement” (Roussel), 219
Kulchyski, Peter, 275
L
Laing, Arthur, 118, 122, 135–37
middle ground between development and protection, 138, 140
on special privilege, 118–19
support for ski facility development, 140
wish to diminish status of park towns, 138–39
Lake Louise campgrounds, 136
Lake Louise ski hill development, 139–40, 147–48
public hearings (1971), 148
Lake Louise village, 41, 136, 138–39, 146
Lakeview subdivisions (Prince Albert National Park), 110–11
land claims, 10, 263, 275, 278, 281, 283. See also individual land claims
Land Use and Occupancy Study for the western Arctic, 283
Landry, Dollard, 210
Landry, Nelson, 224
Langemann, Gwyn, 10, 324, 377, 392
Lascelles, Tony. See Green, Herbert U.
Lasn, Kalle, 169
Latourelle, Alan, 336, 338
Laurentian Club, 189
Laurentian Wilderness, 192
La Laurentide, 185
Laurier, Wilfrid, 28–29, 130n43
Le Capelain, C.K., 253
lease question in townsites, 139, 145
Leasholds Corporation bill, 122
Leblanc, Gérald, 226
Complainte du parc Kouchibouguac, 220–21
work on NFB project on the expropriation of Kouchibouguac, 220
Lee, Gerry, 147
Leopold, Aldo, 68, 338
Leroy, G.A., 145–46
Lesage, Jean, 118
Lethbridge, 62
Lewis, H.F., 253
Life in the Woods (Thoreau), 180
living homestead proposals, 344
local community / national authority tension, 5, 14, 125. See also shack tent controversy
local influences on the creation of parks, 60, 62–63, 75n15, 379
local inhabitants
exclusion from national parks, 296n6, 346
scientifically informed parks and, 199
as stakeholders in national park territories, 181, 277
local knowledge. See also traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)
denial of, 243, 256
local vested interests, 134
Locke, Harvey, 55
Lonergan, David, 221–22, 227–28
Loo, Tina, 172
Louter, David, 158
Lower Fort Garry, 312
Luxton, Norman, 135
Luxtons, 136
M
MacDonald, Flora, 262
MacDonald, John, 139
Macdonald, John A., 15n6, 104, 181
MacEachern, Alan, 5, 55, 158, 180, 273, 363n37, 373, 392
Natural Selections, 229n1
MacKaye, Benton, 68
Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry, 278, 286. See also Berger, Thomas
changed approach to northern conservation, 284
Mackenzie Valley pipeline proposal, 281
MacLaren, I.S., 10, 68, 199, 273, 284, 378, 392
Mair, Winston, 146, 163
Malfair, John, 120
“Man and Landscape Change in Banff National Park” (Nelson), 144
Maréchal, Lake, 192
Marmot Basin ski resort, 343
Marshall, Robert, 68
Martin, Brad, 199, 263, 377, 393
Mattawin River, 185
La Mauricie National Park, 10, 179–99
characterized as “The Laurentian Heritage,” 191
fauna inventory work, 191
human history limited to “folklorized” presence, 196–97
industrial and recreational past reinvented as wilderness, 182, 184, 189
interpretations of what wilderness should be, 198
marsh ecosystems and wetlands, 182
“natural beauties,” 184, 191
need to erase human imprint (timber, fishing), 185
new zoning representing the “wild” backcountry, 195
removal of cultural heritage, 196, 346
strengthening of federal power in Quebec, 199
a ‘true Laurentian Wilderness,’ 192, 194
Mauricie region, 183
fishing and hunting, 182, 185–86
forestry, 182
human-modified landscapes of, 182, 185, 189
industrial activity, 182
McConnell Creek, 324
McDonald, Charles, 105, 128n8
McDonald, D.D., 62
McDonald family, 352
McFadden, J.N., 62
McHarg, Ian, 191
McLaggan, John W., 335, 350, 352, 368n65
McLean, J.D., 238
McNamee, Kevin, National Parks in Canada, 372
McTaggart-Cowan, Ian, 144–45
“The Role of Ecology in the National Parks,” 144
Mealy Mountains, Labrador, 17n19
Meek R.J., 256
Meighen, Arthur, 33
Menissawok, 16n11, 68–69
Métis (aboriginal rights), 216
Métis families in Jasper, 14
compensation, 335–36
expulsion, 335, 350
Mica Creek, 95
Mica Dam, 96–97
Migmag Cedar Trail, 207
Migratory Birds Convention Act, 286
Migratory Birds Treaty, 70
Mi’kmaqs, 206
mineral prospecting, 246. See also gold fields
mineral resource exploration and development, 243
Mines and Resources, 7
mining interests (Yukon), 246, 257
mining law
Free Entry system of, 239
Minnewanka, Lake
inventory of submerged features at, 320
Minnewanka site, 312
multicomponent precontact site, 311
surface collection and test excavation, 311
Mirabel airport, 208
“Mission 66” (U.S. National Park Service), 7
Mitchell, K.B., 164
Moberly, Ed, 348
Moberly, Evan, 344, 354
homestead, 348, 355
at Victor Lake, 352, 367n61
Moberly, Ewan. See Moberly, Evan
Moberly family, 335
modernist narrative, 256
denial of local knowledge and regional interests, 243
high modernist planning, 229n5, 245, 274
Moncton, 226
counterculture, 220
francophonie summit, 226
French English language tensions, 211–12, 226, 230n15
Morrisset, Father, 251, 254
Morse, Charles H., 354
motor tourism. See automobile tourism
Mount Assiniboine, 87, 89
Mount Revelstoke National Park, 60, 334
Mount Robson, 87, 89
mountain caribou, 97
mountain parks. See also names of individual mountain parks
Aboriginal use of mountain passes, 303, 309
children of Yellowstone, 334
incorporated CRM concerns into their management plans, 321
long and continuous human presence, 10, 309–10
reference for deciding what is “interesting” in Canadian landscape, 197
Mt. Rainier, 54
Muir, John, 54, 64, 146, 180
mule deer, 244
multi-use parks, 270n55
Murie, Olaus and Mardy, 278
Murphy, Peter, 348
Murphy, Thomas G., 84, 86–87, 89, 96
muskrat trapping project, 256–57
N
Nahanni, 8, 235
Nahanni River, 282
Nash, Roderick, 179
Wilderness and the American Mind, 142
National and Historic Parks Branch, 200n7
National and Provincial Parks Association, 8, 142, 144, 270n55
National Energy Board, 281
National Film Board, 8, 37, 154, 161, 168, 220
National Historic Parks, 312
National Historic Sites, 307
National Historic Sites Service, 312
archaeological resource inventories, 310
National Historic Sites Service Manuscript Report Series, 313
national park buffalo reserve (proposal, Kluane), 242
national park interpreters, 309
national park reserves, 10, 325. See also names of individual reserves
created in context of modern treaty negotiations, 325
national parks, 35
changing conceptions of, 237–38, 375, 379
commercial and humanitarian benefits, 33
“dedicated to the people of Canada, for their benefit, education and enjoyment,” 375
definitions, 270n59
dispossession of native inhabitants, 180
dual identity as protected natural area and recreation area, 5, 7, 59, 64, 71, 104, 133, 147, 273, 374
dual purpose, 128n2
ecological characterizations, 124, 145, 191, 376 ( See also zoning in parks management)
established partly to draw traffic to CPR, 31
as generators of wealth, 33, 374
historical study, 11, 13
hybrid spaces, 13, 182
as icons celebrating picturesque landscapes, 3, 5, 99, 181
link in chain of unsustainable economic activity, 73
as a means of protecting the environment, 144, 181
as museum, 190–91, 196, 310
must be seen to work for all groups of Canadians, 104, 373
national system of, 66, 236, 374, 379
need for broadly based constituency, 373, 375, 380–81 (See also civil society)
negotiated agreements for, 263–64, 275, 278, 282–83, 325, 335, 355
periodic politicization of, 379–81
place in federal bureaucracy, 4, 7, 11, 28, 30, 375
as playground, 60, 64, 66, 70–71, 245
popular understanding of (mid-twentieth century), 245
private dwellings in, 104–5 (See also shack tent controversy)
professional inputs, integration of, 380
scientific principles of management, 245 (See also National Parks System Plan)
stewardship of, 373, 380
suburb-like camping (60s and 70s), 153
support from Canadian people, 43, 54
as symbol of Canadian identity, 340, 372, 382n1
as uninhabited landscape, 310
wilderness sanctuaries, 10, 54, 180 (See also wilderness)
National Parks Act (1930), 69, 72, 118, 356, 374–75
confirmed traditional role of parks as serviced recreation areas, 106
ecological protection, 106
industrial activities excluded under, 6
required removal and exclusion of trespassers, 337
resource development forbidden under, 106
National Parks Act (1974), 289
new concept of national park reserve, 10, 325
traditional hunting and fishing practices under, 10
National Parks Act (1988)
ecological integrity as watch phrase, 127, 149
National Parks Act (2000), 337
National Parks Association, 67
National Parks Branch, 2–3, 6, 83, 86, 257
archaeologists, 312
attempt to balance tourism and preservation, 164
change in attitude (during 1960s), 146–48
decentralization, 7, 135, 137
development still favoured over protection (1960s), 147
ecological characterizations for national parks, 124
efforts to discourage bear highway liaisons, 160, 165
environmental awareness, 7, 147
films encouraging tourism, 161–62
greater voice to biologists, 149
historic archaeology, 313
Interpretive Service, 146
Inuit and First Nations distrust of, 283
mission of recognizing true wild nature and promoting its good uses, 192
nation-building-through-science activity, 196
new planning section, 1957, 7, 115–17, 129n33, 137, 274
new policy about citizen involvement, 119
opposed to development on Beaufort Sea coast, 277
opposed to Indian fishing and hunting rights, 253
privileged tourists over local residents, 273
reinventing territory as wilderness, 189
shaping and responding to attitudes about parks, 8
support for ski hill development, 140
technical expertise, reliance on in, 135
university-trained ecologist, 148
National Parks in Canada (McNamee), 372
national parks in north. See northern parks
National Parks Policy statement (1964), 118, 137
preservation nudged ahead of recreation, 7
National Parks System Plan, 8, 145, 281
identified candidate areas for protection, 380
mitigated the politicization of park establishment, 381
natural regions defined under, 8, 195, 199
“natural values” as primary interest, 196
social and cultural history of landscapes not mentioned, 196
support among non-governmental heritage agencies, 380–81
National Parks System’s Planning Manual, 195
National Recreation Area concept, 77n39
National Wilderness Park Steering Committee (NWPSC), 287–88
National Wilderness Reservation for Yukon North Slope
concessions to oil and gas companies, 290
National Wildlife Area, 289
native people. See Aboriginal people; First Nations people
natural gas. See oil and gas companies
Natural Resources Transfer Act (1930), 80
Natural Selections (MacEachern), 229n1
Nelson, Gordon, 142, 144–45
“Man and Landscape Change in Banff National Park,” 144
Nemiskam, 16n11, 68–69
Network in Canadian History and Environment (NiCHE), 13
Neufeld, David, 7, 273–74, 283, 377, 393
New Brunswick Expropriation Act, 211
New Brunswick government, 205, 208
expropriations for Kouchibouguac, 206
focus on Kouchibouguac’s potential for economic development, 210
Nicol, John, 123, 196
Nielsen, Erik, 258
Noranda, 222
Norquay, 139–40
Northern Frontier, Northern Homeland (Berger), 278, 281
northern parks, 3, 10, 13
to be tailored to expectations of southern visitors, 274
co-management arrangements, 275
in context of growing native political power, 275
First Nations’ tenacity, resilience, and wit, 264
negotiated with indigenous leaders, 263–64, 275, 278, 282–83, 325, 335, 355
Northern Parks Working Group, 284
“Northern Vision” of development and progress, 246
Northern Yukon National Park, 275, 284, 291–92. See also Ivvavik National Park
created (1984) as part of negotiated land claim settlement, 278, 282–93
Nunavut land claim proposal, 282
O
oil and gas companies
concessions to in Yukon North Slope, 290–92
oil exploration in the Beaufort Sea, 277–78
conflicts with Inuvialuit hunters, 282
Ojibwe, 335
Old Crow, 278, 287
Old Women’s Buffalo Jump, 307
Oliver, Frank, 4, 28
Olympic National Park, 54
Olympic proposal (1968), 148
Orr, R.B., 63
Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 155
Ottawa Citizen, 88
Ottawa Marine Archaeology Unit, 320
Ouellette, Gilles, 196
P
Pacific Rim, 8
Palisades Centre, 343
Panel on the Ecological Integrity of Canada’s National Parks (2000), 11, 346–47, 376, 381
Parc National des Pyrénées
protected nature in balance with man, 343
park naturalist program, 146
Parks Canada, 2–3, 10, 200n7
Award of Merit for developing the field of historical archaeology, 312
changing definition of national parks, 237
cultural landscape concept, 10–11
under Department of the Environment (1979), 375
dual mandate of development and preservation, 273, 334
ecology as non-human nature, 12
global leader in environmental challenges of protected places, 14
Guiding Principles and Operational Policies, 181, 321, 377
on human habitation and local resource use in parks, 190, 274
human rights issues, 339
idealized representation of wilderness, 180, 190
interest in the picturesque in Canadian nature, 197
need to build broadly based constituencies, 373, 375, 381
negotiations with First Nations when establishing new parks, 284, 335, 355
outreach and engagement, new emphasis on, 381
promotional discourse, 181
reorganized (1994), 321
resettlement of evicted Aboriginal people, 335–36
responsibility to protect current cultural sites, sacred areas, 347
selective exclusion of humans, 197
visitor experience initiative (2006), 378, 381
willingness to bend principle on private use, 126–27
working with others to protect biological diversity of ecosystems, 376
Parks Canada Agency Act (2000)
ecological values stressed, 376
Parks Canada Policy (1979), 216
subsistence activities in national parks, 285
Parks Canada Program. See Parks Canada
“Parks for Tomorrow” (conferences, 1968, 1978, 2008), 8, 13, 55
Parti acadien, 212
Pattullo, T.D. “Duff,” 84, 86–87, 89, 93, 96–97, 101n25
Pearl Harbor, 93
Pearson government, 183
people as a problem, 274, 340, 376. See also human presence in national parks; wilderness
people as solution, 381–82
philosophy of parks, 25, 32, 38–39
crafted by Harkin, Williams, Williamson and others, 31
humanitarian and commercial value of parks, 25
largely understood and accepted in mid-1940s, 45
Pickard, Rod, 317
Pinard, A.A., 65
Plantes family, 352
Pocahontas Cabins, 343
Point Pelee National Park, 5, 161, 356
automobiles banned from the tip, 71
became highly developed tourism centre though created as preservation, 70
protection of stopover point for migratory birds, 68
under threat from overuse, 11, 71
political dynamics, 380
integral to the establishment of national parks, 379
mitigated by Systems Plan, 381
Porcupine caribou herd, 278, 289
portable cabins, 114–16, 120–21, 127. See also shack tents
precontact archaeology, 311, 313
predator control, 146–47
preservationist model, 54, 59, 64
nature should be untouched, 376
preservationist movement (U.S.), 68
Primeau’s Landing, 105
Prince Albert, 5, 62, 110, 117, 130n43
Prince Albert Board of Trade, 107, 110, 114
Prince Albert Daily Herald, 122
Prince Albert National Park, 14, 67, 138, 379
“a case of special privilege and fancied right,” 116
attendance, 111, 127
families of modest means, 107
local clientele, 107, 123
local community / national authority tension, 5, 103–27
local lobbying for, 62, 65
popular use as regional summer playground, 107, 123, 127
shack tent controversy in, 103–27
Prince Albert National Park (Williams), 35
Prince Albert National Park Provisional Master Plan (1971), 124–25
Prince Albert National Park Shack Tent Owners’ Association, 111
private dwellings in Canada’s national parks, 118, 138. See also shack tent controversy
Banff, 139
history of, 104–5
private hunting and fishing clubs
holding lands designated for future park in the Mauricie, 186, 189
“improvements” to the local ecosystem, 189
private use of public lands, 122
“progressive” view of history, 340
pronghorn antelope, 68
Prospect Point, 107, 128n12
summer cottage site, 106
protected areas, 256, 293, 350
cultural landscapes as, 277, 297n10
erasing native presence, 260, 346
indigenous groups’ objections to, 283
IUCN categorization, 341
people a problem for, 340
preserving traditional local culture, 339
removal of local peoples from, 274
provincial jurisdiction over natural resources, 5, 80
Publicity Division (Parks Branch), 66, 77n40
image of parks as playgrounds rather than wilderness areas, 67
travel and wildlife documentaries, 37
Q
Quebec City, 314
Quebec government
nationalization private lands to create “controlled exploitation zones,” 186
Québécois, 227
R
Reconte-moi Massabielle (Savoie), 222–24
Red Deer Lake. See Waskesiu Lake
Red Deer River valley, 324
Red Deer River watershed in Banff National Park, 317
Reeve, Alex, 119–20
Reeves, Brian, 308, 313–14
linking of human history and environment, 309
showed that archaeological sites were present throughout Banff, 303
survey of Crowsnest Pass, 310
surveyed Waterton Lakes National Park, 309
Reichwein, Pearlann, 55
reinstating an ongoing Aboriginal or Métis presence, 341, 347–48, 356, 378
not beyond realm of possibility, 355
rejuvenating cultural practice, 335, 356
challenge to Parks Canada Agency (PCA) practices, 335, 378
relief work camps, 82–83, 87, 99n5
resource development in national parks, 181
forbidden under National Parks Act (1930), 106
resource development in the north, 246, 282. See also mineral prospecting; mining interests (Yukon); oil and gas companies
resource management, 321
Resources for Tomorrow Conference, Montreal (1961), 142
Revelstoke, 61, 81
Revelstoke Progress Club, 60
Richard, Zachary, 207, 219–21, 226
Ballade de Jackie Vautour, 227
Rick, John, 312
Riding Mountain National Park, 66–67
approvals for private sector development, 65
draw for automobile travelers from U.S., 63
exclusion of Native people, 77n40, 361n20, 364n39
program of road and golf course construction, 65
shack tents, 118
Riding Mountain National Park Committee, 62
Riding Mountains area
significance as sanctuary for a threatened elk herd, 62
Rimrock Hotel (now the Juniper), 136
roads. See also names of specific roads and highways
automobile link between Vancouver and Calgary, 81
automobile roads (late 1920s) in the mountains of western Canada, 80
back to healthier and fuller contact with nature, 41
construction to provide automobile access to ski hill areas, 140
democratic ideal that national parks not be restricted to the wealthy, 66
environmental effects in Point Pelee, 71
national park status and, 105
proposed in Banff provisional master plan, 144–45
wildlife and, 154, 158
roadside timber reserve (Big Bend), 83
between Kinbasket Lake and Boat Encampment, 87
open to logging in anticipation of Mica Dam flooding, 96
Robertson, Gordon, 116–17
Robichaud, Louis, 210–12
Rocky Mountain House National Historic Site, 304, 307, 312, 314
Rocky Mountain Park (1885), 27, 58
exclusion of Native people, 74n2
first open to automobile, 60
little knowledge of what had been there before, 305
shrunk by Dominion Forest Reserves and Parks Act, 28
villa or cottage lots in, 104
Rocky Mountains, 80, 97
crossroads of cultures from the BC Plateau and the Plains, 307
people have always been present, 303–4
promotion of (through guidebooks), 22
Rocky Mountains Forest Reserve, 352
Rocky Mountains Park Act (1887), 3, 30
leasing of lands for residences and commercial development, 58
permits for grazing, 58
preserving land and wildlife, 58
required removal of “trespassers,” 337, 350
sanction for the development of mines, 58
Rocky Mountains Repeat Photography Project, 348, 350
Rogers Pass, 81, 95, 99n3, 309
Rogers Pass highway, 102n34
“The Role of Ecology in the National Parks” (McTaggart-Cowan), 144
Roosevelt, Theodore, 180
Ross, Alexander, 38
Rothman, Hal, 73
Roussel, Claude
“Kouchibouguac,” 217
“Kouchibouguac ou le grand déracinement,” 219
Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 247, 258
Royal Commission on Government Organization (1962), 135
Rudin, Ronald, 125, 273, 346, 377, 393
S
Sabin, Paul, 286
Sable Island, Nova Scotia, 17n19
Saint-Maurice River, 185
Sandlos, John, 5, 14, 41, 83, 158, 237, 273, 283, 361n20, 373–74, 393
Sanson, Norman Bethune, 305
Saskatchewan Natural History Society, 125
Saskatchewan Wildlife Federation, 125
Saskatchewan’s “poor man’s paradise,” 121
Saskatoon, 115
Saskatoon Board of Trade, 114
Savoie, Jacques, Reconte-moi Massabielle, 222–24
Sax, Joseph, 339
Scace, Bob, 144
Scenic and Historic Preservation Society of America, 30
scenic beauty and picturesque landscapes, 99, 181, 191, 244–45
in selection of sites of national parks, 181
Schmalz, Bill, 154, 168–69, 172
science of ecology, 182, 195
scientific approach to fur management, 256
scientific definition of national park values, 237–38
scientific knowledge, 254
scientific management, 239, 245, 274
scientific understanding, 145
“scientification” of the landscape, 190, 197–98
Searle, Rick, 149
Seel, Kurt, 309
Sekani, 335
Selkirk mountains, 80, 97
highway through, 81, 95
shack tent controversy, 103–27, 379
shack tents, 111, 114–15, 120–22, 124
fees, 129n17
led to sense of community, 107
longstanding tradition in Waskesiu, 114–15, 127
semi-proprietary rights in a national park, 116
Shand-Harvey, James, 352
Shawinigan Club, 186, 189
Shuswap semi-subterreanean winter pithouses, 305
Shuswaps, 42, 335
Sibbald, Howard, 62
Sierra Club, 381
Silent Spring (Carson), 135
ski hills, development of, 139–40, 147–48
Skoki Ski Lodge, 355
Smart, James, 111, 114
Smith, Harlan I.
archaeological housepit village site near Banff Springs golf course, 305, 307, 315
first professional archaeological work in the mountain parks, 307
social activism, 135
social and environmental justice, 277
social complexity of contemporary Canadian landscapes, 199
social issues, 145
social safety net, 246–47. See also relief work camps; state involvement in economic development
Société d’exploitation des ressources éducatives du Québec (SEREQ), 191–92
Société nationale de l’Acadie (SNA), 226–27
Society for Historical Archaeology, 312
South Okanagan–Lower Similkameen National Park Reserve, 17n19
Southern Tutchone, 265n7
arrival of newcomers, 238
experiential knowledge of local geography, seasons, and resources, 238, 254
trade and travel networks, 238
unconstrained hunting and fishing until the 1920s, 239
Special Inquiry (Kouchibouguac), 214, 216, 229n4, 377
called for Parks Canada to involve former residents, 224
recommended Vautour be left alone, 215
Spence, Mark, 275
“spoiled” bear, 169–70
A Sprig of Mountain Heather, 32, 34
St. Lawrence Islands National Park, 58
St. Lawrence Seaway, 208
state involvement in economic development, 210. See also social safety net
Steuart, Davey, 125
Stonies, 42, 335
Strong, B.I.M., 111, 114
Sturgeon River Forest Reserve, 105, 128n6
subsistence hunting within park boundaries, 284–86
subsistence lifeway, 10, 238–39, 256–57
Inuvialuit desires to maintain hunting and trapping, 287
reduction of, 242
seen as obsolete, 247, 250–51, 253–54
Sulphur Mountain Cosmic Ray Station, 355
Sunshine, 139–40
Supreme Court, 215
on Nishga land claim, 260
Sutter, Paul, 68
Swift, Lewis, 335
Swinnerton, Guy, 354
System Plan. See National Parks System Plan
T
Taking the Air (Kopas), 8
Taverner, Percy, 70
Taylor, C.J., 7, 44, 118, 154, 184, 190, 195, 361n25, 394
Taylor, Jim, 274, 379
Tekarra Lodge, 343
Terra Nova National Park, 162
Tester, Frank, 275
Theberge, John, 237
Thelon Game Sanctuary, 283
themes of human history in Kluane, 258
Aboriginal peoples not mentioned, 260
Thompson, David, 38
Thomson, Tom, The Jack Pine, 180
Thoreau, Henry David
Life in the Woods, 180
Walden, 180
Thorsell, Jim, 134–35, 146, 150
Thousand Islands Park, 3–4
Through the Heart of the Rockies and the Selkirks (Williams), 41
first mass-market guidebook, 35
land long vacant, 42
timber, 27
logging in Hamber Provincial Park, 95–96, 101n32
La Mauricie National Park, 185
roadside timber reserve (Big Bend), 83, 87, 96
timber leasing system, 29–30
Todhunter, Roger, 375
Together Today for Our Children Tomorrow, 260
Tolmie, Simon Frasier, 82–83
Toronto Globe, 1, 350
tourism, 3, 22, 28, 31, 34, 45, 53, 63, 136, 158, 375. See also automobile tourism
Big Bend Highway and, 88
films encouraging, 161–62
growth with completion of Trans-Canada Highway, 135–36
Harkin’s devotion to, 55
hotel and motel units at Lake Louise and Banff, 136
influence on development of national parks, 25, 54, 73
mass back-to-nature tourism, 154
national parks as tourist “playground,” 66, 71, 245
negative ecological effects of, 54, 66
Point Pelee, 70
and preservation of scenic beauty or rare animals, 72
railroads tourism literature promoting parks, 35, 50n35
revenue, 15n6, 32
tourist expectations, 54
U.S. tourists, 61
wilderness sanctuaries, 10, 54, 180 (See also wilderness)
traditional aboriginal knowledge of place, 254
traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), 343, 347. See also local knowledge
Trans-Canada Highway, 135
completed between Banff and Yoho, 134
Trans-Canada Highway twinning in Banff National Park, 317, 375
archaeological research related to, 304
site survey and excavation, 314
travel guides. See guidebooks
Trent-Severn Canal system, 63
“The Trouble with Wilderness” (Cronon), 180
Troye, Warner, 165
Trudeau, Pierre, 260
Trudeau government, 8, 122
White Paper on Indian Policy, 103
Tunnel Mountain Campground, 136
Turner, James Morton, 334
Two Jack Campground, 136
U
UARV. See Upper Athabasca River Valley (UARV)
Uncommon Ground (Cronon), 339
UNESCO World Heritage Site designation, 355
Unimpaired for Future Generations, 74n2
uninhabited wilderness. See also human presence in national parks
dependent upon myopia (can’t see Indians), 340
Inuvialuit opposition to, 275
at root of national park movement in North America, 275
Université de Moncton, 211–12, 230n15
universities. See also names of individual universities
environmental studies programs, 142
growing influence in shaping government policy, 134
public advocacy in, 142
second wave of wilderness preservation and, 154
University archaeology field schools, 320
“University of Banff,” 146
University of British Columbia’s School of Community and Regional Planning, 142
University of Calgary, 144
University of Calgary’s Department of Geography, 142
Upper Athabasca River Valley (UARV), 356
balancing human and non-human life in, 334
homesteads in, 335
long history of human presence, 334–35
reinstating Métis or Aboriginal presence (idea), 340–41
use by humans and animals, 333
U.S., 3, 32, 93
bear problem, 159
restrictive corridor on both sides of the Alaska Highway, 243
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 246
U.S. National Park Service, 7, 190, 195, 348
U.S. National Park Service Mission 66 building program, 142
U.S. national parks system, 140
criticism of industrial tourism, 71
U.S. Organic Act (1926), 337
use and protection, twinning, 5
use-versus-preservation debate, 154, 163, 171. See also dual mandate of development and preservation
V
vacant wilderness. See uninhabited wilderness
Van Horne, William, 3, 15n6
Vancouver Sun, 95
Vautour, Jackie, 212, 225
accepted as permanent presence, 223
arrested for digging clams, 215
centre stage in many artistic creations, 217
contested legality of expropriation, 214
house bulldozed, 207, 213–14, 217, 222
image as agent of resistance, 219
Métis (aboriginal rights), 216
payment to leave, 215, 228
petition, 214–15
provided leadership and a public face, 213
returned as a squatter, 207, 214, 221
Vautour, John L. See Vautour, Jackie
Vermilion Lakes site
10,700-years of occupation, 315
Vermilion wetlands excavation, 315
Victor Lake, 367n61
homesteaders move to, 350, 352
shifting boundaries, 352, 367n61, 368n61
Victoria Memorial Museum in Ottawa, 305
visitor experience initiative, 378, 381
Vivian, Brian, 320
Vuntut Gwich’in First Nation, 290–91
W
Waiser, Bill, 5, 14, 138, 273, 379, 394
Walden (Thoreau), 180
Walt Disney Productions, 161
Wapizagonke, Lake, 185
Wardle, J.M., 83
Wasagaming (resort town), 65
Waskesiu campground
crowded conditions, 106, 111, 115
dominated by shack tents and portable cabins, 117
plan to replace shack tents with trailer sites, 120
popularity, 107, 110
Waskesiu Lake, 105
Waskesiu redevelopment plan (1967), 119
second thoughts about, 123–24
shock and dismay at, 120–21
Waskesiu summer cottagers
influential in deciding park policy, 127
Waskesiu Tent Cabin and Portable Cabin Association, 103
campaign to stop redevelopment plan, 121–22
Chrétien’s meeting with, 123
complaints “their park” under attack, 124–25
Waskesiu townsite, 65
private cottages, 104
Waterton Lakes National Park, 27, 30, 58, 309, 334
bison, 323
park within a forest reserve, 28
Waterton Lakes National Park (Williams), 35, 42
Watrous, Richard B., 49n28
Wawaskesey, 16n11, 68–69
Weber, Lake, 192
Weekend Magazine, 139
Wheeler, Arthur, 373
Where Has Sanctuary Gone? (1971), 165
Whistler, B.C., 148
White, James, 315
White Paper on Indian Policy, 103, 260, 271n60, 282
White River First Nation, 263
Whitehorse mines, 246
Whyte Museum of the Canadian Rockies, 305
Whytes, 136
wilderness, 13, 27, 142, 198, 343, 383n9
debate (corruption by over-development), 159
fundamental component of North American culture, 180
human rights issues, 334, 338–39, 354
IUCN definition of, 338
justification for parks, 54, 66
popular histories emphasizing, 74n8
questionable in parks established in long-inhabited lands, 199
redefined, 10
reworking inhabited landscapes into “pristine” wilderness, 180
Romantic notion of, 334
a social construct, 181, 340
uninhabited, 275, 340, 357
wilderness recreation, 124, 135
“windshield wilderness,” 158
Wilderness Act (U.S., 1964), 7
wilderness activism, 54–55
Wilderness and the American Mind (Nash), 142
wilderness conservation in Canada, U.S., and Britain
comparative study, 376–77
wilderness movement, 153, 165
wilderness park as alternative to fee simple ownership, 286
wilderness playground paradox, 334–35, 340
wilderness protection, 144, 274, 334, 337, 339
wilderness recreation, 135
Wilderness Society, 278
wilderness values, 274
wildlife. See also bears; coyotes; subsistence lifeway
economic value of, 247
as tourist attraction, 8, 62, 245, 247
wild animals seemed “tamed” along roadways, 158
wildlife cinematography, 155, 161
wildlife in the Yukon report (1958), 257
wildlife management, 354
Wildlife of the Rockies (1959), 160–62
wildlife parks, 68–69
wildlife preserves, 5, 68
wildlife protection, 69
Williams, M.B., 3, 5, 14, 21–46, 373
The Banff-Jasper Highway, 46, 371
The Banff-Windermere Highway, 35
Bennett’s cuts and, 45–46
compiled and published Harkin’s memoirs, 24, 46
and expansion of the national parks system, 58
Grey Owl and, 46
Guardians of the Wild, 43, 46
guidebooks (See Williams’ guidebooks)
The Heart of the Rockies, 46
Jasper National Park, 35, 38
Jasper Trails, 35
The Kicking Horse Trail, 35, 41–42
Kootenay National Park and the Banff-Windermere Highway, 35
linked parks to tourism, 25
loyalty to Harkin, 27
parks as part of our natural birthright, 42
philosophy of parks, 25, 32
Prince Albert National Park, 35
publicist and popularizer of early parks system, 373
publicity assistant and publicity agent, 37
research on mountain parks, 22, 35
salary, 37
supported by Harkin, 27
Through the Heart of the Rockies and the Selkirks, 35, 41–42
on timber leasing system, 29
travel and wildlife documentaries, 37
tried to make her name as writer, 46, 48
Waterton Lakes National Park, 35
Williams’ guidebooks, 25, 35, 40
First Nations’ presence downplayed, 42
indicative of Branch’s thinking in 1920s, 39
platform for communicating Park Branch’s message, 42
reworked in 1940s and 1950s, 46
trademark device (quotations), 38–39
Williamson, F.H.H., 31, 37
Willmore Wilderness Park, 355
Windermere, 62
Winnipeg, 314
Winter Olympic Games (1960), Squaw Valley, California, 140
“Winter Recreation and the National Parks: A Management Policy and Development Program,” 140
Woco Club, 189
women’s position in Canadian civil service (1910), 48n10
Wood, James, 106, 110
Wood Buffalo National Park, 68, 70, 251, 283
First Nations hunting privileges in, 360n17
Working for Wildlife (Foster), 55
World Heritage Convention (1976), 10
World Heritage Site designation, 355, 370n73
World Heritage Sites, 10
World Wilderness Congress (Fifth, 1995), 338
World Wilderness Congress (Fourth, 1987), 337
World Wildlife Canada System Plan, 16n19
Wormington, Marie, 308
Writing on Stone, 307
Wynyandies family, 352
Y
Ya Ha Tinda Ranch
archaeological surveys, 310–11
Yard, Robert Sterling, 68
Yellowhead Pass, 335, 369n72
Yellowstone model
of conservation, 339–40
of park development, 208
protection of wilderness by outlawing permanent human residence, 334, 337
Yellowstone National Park, 3, 54, 158, 180
bear studies, 165, 168
romantic notion of wilderness, 334
Yoho National Park, 27, 41, 58, 334
archaeological surveys, 310–11
Yukon, 254
hydro-electric power proposals for, 246
Yukon Branch of the Department of the Interior, 70
Yukon First Nations. See also Southern Tutchone
demanded “freeze on development of all unoccupied crown land,” 260
political action contributing to greater awareness, 377
separation from their land, 247
Yukon Fish and Game Association, 247
Yukon Native Brotherhood, 260
Yukon territorial government, 243–44, 247, 286, 288, 290, 292
importance of development, 242–43
opposed land withdrawals for Indian hunting and trapping, 242
revision to Yukon Game Ordinance, 1947, 247
supported oil and gas companies on Beaufort Sea coast, 277
Z
zoning in parks management, 191–92, 195, 361n25, 387–89
cornerstone of planning process in parks, 141
degrees of human presence and use, 339
“Zoo of the Mountains,” 160