3Sustaining Castello Sonnino: Small Tourism in a Tuscan Village

John S. Hull, Donna Senese, and Darcen Esau

Introduction

Tuscany is one of the most popular tourism destinations in Italy, with 6 World Heritage Sites, 120 protected nature reserves, and a reputation for outstanding wine and cuisine. At the heart of that cuisine is the cucina povera, a culinary tradition developed out of necessity to feed poor farm workers during the eight hundred years of the mezzadria, or sharecropping system, which so profoundly influenced the iconic Tuscan countryside that remains today. Castello Sonnino is a 150-hectare Tuscan estate and working farm dating back to the thirteenth century, located in the heart of the village of Montespertoli, home to approximately thirteen hundred residents and located twenty kilometres outside of Florence, on the ancient Volterrana Road linking the region to Siena in the southern Tuscany. Historically, the estate served as a customs post between the Florentine and Sienese territories, and since the fourteenth century it has been passed down through powerful local families. The Sonnino family has owned the estate for generations, building a model for sustainability through agricultural and social innovation, balancing tradition and experimentation. They produce wines, grains, and extra virgin olive oils reflective of a new Tuscan generation of agrarians who are conservators of tradition, but who employ appropriate modernization in creating internationally recognized products (Camuto 2016). Today, the entire region is marketed as a territory of small villages, attracting explorers of slow travel interested in adventure, who want to escape the city and enjoy nature, culture and local cuisine (VisitMontespertoli 2021). In Montespertoli, small is the way forward.

Using a mixed qualitative methodology, this chapter provides an exploratory case study of small-scale tourism to focus on the role of altruism in the development of slow tourism through international education to sustain a historic estate. The data collected through interviews, focus groups, and autoethnography describe how the estate, encompassing vineyards, olive groves, grain fields, and patches of woodlot, adopted slow tourism that includes the commonplace rural Tuscan offerings of estate tours, tastings, retail, restaurant, and overnight accommodations to remain economically sustainable. Recently, Castello Sonnino has diversified the sort of tourism offering usually found in Tuscany with the development of experiential educational programs that highlight the circular economy that has existed between the village and the estate for centuries. For visiting tourists and students, there are workshops, lectures with local experts, and experiential course fieldwork that focuses on sustainable culture, agriculture, and environmental issues. In the twenty-first century, Castello Sonnino also serves as the residence of the Baronessa Caterina de Renzis Sonnino and her family; they are descendants of Sidney Sonnino, a prime minister of Italy in the early twentieth century.

The main purpose of this exploratory case study is to understand how and why the small-scale educational tourism developed at Castello Sonnino by the Sonnino family has transformed the estate into an economically viable and internationally recognized rural centre for sustainable development. The objectives of the study are to identify the role of altruism in promoting slow tourism that provides experiential programs and authentic tourism experiences for students and visitors, and to understand the role of the Sonnino family in implementing innovative, multi-functional, and sustainable development strategies that are preserving the environment and cultural heritage in the village of Montespertoli and in the larger region of Tuscany.

Literature Review

The following review of literature provides our context for understanding the role of altruism, slow tourism, and sustainable development in supporting the evolution of small-scale, educational tourism at Castello Sonnino.

Altruism and Tourism

Altruism is defined by Wilson (2015, 141) as “motives that cause people to help others.” Altruism also is the principle or practice of concern for others (Beer and Watson 2009). Kim, Lee, and Bonn (2016) suggest that altruism occurs between individuals who have a common-bond attachment. Paraskevaidis and Andriotis (2017) in their review of literature exploring the concept of altruism in tourism, found that the majority of articles addressed the motives and behaviours of volunteer tourists, who visit a destination to offer their services, gain work experience, and increase welfare in host societies (Weaver 2015; Wearing and McGehee 2013; Zahra and McGehee 2013; Tomazos and Butler 2012). A second group of articles addressed altruism in host communities and host-tourist encounters (Fennell 2006; Uriely et al. 2002). Smith and Holmes (2012) argue that host volunteering involves residents as volunteers in their own community at visitor attractions such as museums and heritage sites, at events, or in destination service organizations. Researchers point out (Paraskevaidis and Andriotis 2017; Alonso and Liu 2013; Smith and Holmes 2012) that host volunteers often contribute to the social capital of their community, being motivated by place attachment, civic pride, and the emotional ties within their community.

In general, acts of altruism result in social exchange between individuals that can be categorized as either direct or indirect (Paraskevaidis and Andriotis 2017; Molm, Collett, and Schaefer 2007). There are two forms of direct social exchange. The first is defined as a reciprocal exchange, which refers to resource exchanges between two actors, when contributions are “separately performed, non-negotiated, and initiated by performing beneficial acts for another” (Paraskevaidis and Andriotis 2017, 27). The second is defined as negotiated exchanges where two actors negotiate to reach a mutually beneficial agreement (Andriotis and Agiomirgianakis 2014). In the case of indirect exchanges, the recipient does not reciprocate the giver directly, but they receive benefit as a result of multi-party interactions in the community (Paraskevaidis and Andriotis 2017; Fennell 2006).

Paraskevaidis and Andriotis (2017) have adapted the concept of reciprocal altruism to direct and indirect forms of social exchange, arguing that altruistic acts can be either direct, benefiting two actors (host/host, host/guest), or indirect, in which individuals help those who help others, for example, in the broader tourism community (Kim, Lee, and Bonn 2015; Fennell 2006). Researchers (Osiński 2009; Fennell 2006; Trivers 1971; Hamilton 1964) also point out that reciprocal altruism can exist both between non-kin individuals and individuals biologically related as a result of mutual co-operation that promotes new levels of societal organization and a beneficial return over time. Fennell (2006) found that promoting a co-operative environment for tourism development at a destination requires altruistic behaviour from both the giver and the recipient that should be recognized and rewarded by local authorities. Paraskevaidis and Andriotis (2017) argue that only a few studies address altruism as a motivational factor influencing host-host and host-guest relationships in tourism development, and that the concept of altruism in tourism studies lacks precise criteria and requires more clarity (Wright 2013; Lockstone-Binney et al. 2010; Holmes and Smith 2009; Anderson and Cairncross 2005). The Castello Sonnino case study will help us understand what types of altruism are playing a role in promoting slow tourism, benefiting the estate itself, the small village of Montespertoli, and the broader region of Tuscany.

Slow Tourism

Another important theme identified by the Castello Sonnino case study is the role of slow food in supporting the sustainability of small tourism. Incensed by the proposed development of a McDonald’s restaurant at the foot of the Spanish Steps in Rome, Carlo Petrini in 1986 began a collective retaliation against the consumption of fast food and its culture that would quickly have global reach into a variety of consumptive industries, including tourism. Slow food raised public awareness of and respect for food, natural lifecycles, the dignity of farmers, and biodiversity; it is encapsulated in the term “eco-gastronomy” (Croce and Perri 2008, 4). Slow tourism is conceptualized as tourism that respects local cultures, history, and environment. It also values social responsibility that celebrates diversity and connects people (Clancy 2017; Heitmann, Robinson, and Povey 2011); that it finds a natural alliance in food and wine destinations where slow oeno-gastronomic consumption that is good, fair, and local, has been well-documented (Fullagar, Markwell, and Wilson 2012; Dickinson and Lumsdon 2010). Slow tourism embodies mobility and the spatio-temporal practices and immersive modes of travel that consider rhythm, pace, tempo, and velocity produced in the relationships between the traveller and the world (Cresswell 2010). Slow food travellers seek shared culinary experiences, where travel is deliberate and there is a greater sense of self-awareness (McGrath and Sharpley 2017).

In central Italy, the appeal of slow food and travel has drawn both tourists and amenity migrants to small rural communities, including Montespertoli, where a way of life associated with agricultural work, food and wine products, and family relationships (Williams, King, and Warnes 1997) is prominently marketed. Slow food, wine, and agri-tourism in Tuscany remains focused on traditional and typical gastronomic production and lifestyles. In 1999, the Slow Food Presidia project was created to bring the traditional gastronomic products of Tuscany to a global audience, and the Slow Wine Guide quickly followed by marketing Italian wineries to present to consumers a sense of place and eco-sustainability of the cellar (Gariglio and Giavedoni 2015). The imprint of the slow movement on rural tourism in Tuscany is based in the gastronomic sector but is entwined with agri-tourism through the construction of social and cultural networks that enable the development of local traditions, art forms, celebrations, experiences, entrepreneurship, and knowledge (Saxena and Ilbery 2008).

Tourism remains a stable driver of the rural economy in Tuscany as the pioneering wave of slow food and wine tourists with demands for good, fair, and local food and wine have become mainstream; food, wine, and tourism production are now inseparable in Tuscany. The Slow Food Manifesto, which defends local production and the culture of farm life, family, and lifestyle, remains central to both the tourism and the agriculture industries. The principles for good community governance and the slow movement coalesce here under the broader umbrella of an eco-gastronomic lifestyle that values authenticity, quality, education, conservation, and the protection of partnerships between local agents (Saxena et al. 2007). Slow gastronomy and oeno-gastronomic tourism thus captures the political and ethical discourse of sustainable values based in territory, landscape, and culture, manifesting an outgrowth of the sustainable development movement and the more recent focus on the circular economy summarized in the next section (UNWTO 2016).

Sustainable Development

The sustainable development debate, popularized in the 1980s (IUCN, UNEP, and WWF 1980; WCED 1987) and defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the future,” was operationalized globally through integrated economic, social, and environmental strategies with the participation of local stakeholders (UNEP and UNWTO 2005). These strategies increased awareness of the global nature of environmental problems, identified the significance of the environment-economic development relationship, and provided a basis for government and private-sector response to encourage more sustainable forms of development. To advance sustainable futures, researchers agree the process by which change occurs is of increasing concern. Identification of the adaptive capacities of rural areas such as Montespertoli reveals a need to understand the changing nature of the local economic, social, and environmental conditions as part of a co-operative process in which businesses (Smit and Skinner 2002), member organizations, and scientists encourage ecosystem and socio-economic resilience as a pathway to sustainability (Brouder 2017). Now, however, there is an urgent need to consider transformation of the global tourism system aligned with the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. The challenge is to accelerate the transformation of sustainable tourism, putting people and their well-being first (Gossling, Scott, and Hall 2020; UNWTO 2020). Fusté-Forné and Jamal (2020) argue that slow food experiences reflect the need for responsible, mindful relationships and practices among guests and hosts that foster resilience, sustainability, and social plus ecological well-being. Slow experiences produce a “terroir of holistic relationships” that are a conduit to sense of place, emphasizing artisanal, handmade, and quality local foods (Fusté-Forné and Jamal 2020). In this way, slow tourism contributes to sustainable livelihoods and social well-being, while also empowering visitors and residents to help one another and be active rather than passive consumers as a form of altruistic partnership as part of a circular economy.

Circular economy theory proposes a business and solutions-oriented approach to sustainability, referring to the production and consumption of tourism services through a “circular” system that limits use of non-renewable resources, promotes recycling, and produces almost no waste (Sørensen and Baerenholdt 2020; Andersen 2007). The concept of the circular economy emerged in the 1990s to promote innovation and the transition toward a regenerative and restorative economy (MacArthur 2013). A review of the literature reveals a focus on how producers are adopting circular economy production principles through innovation and transformations in tourism products, such as through reductions of CO₂ emissions, cruise ship and air pollution, and hotel waste (Pamfilie et al. 2018; Manniche et al. 2017). In these cases, supply chain sustainability occurs as a result of the introduction of new production methods, for new markets (Bianchi 2011). It can also occur by returning to traditional supply chains. For instance, in the Montespertoli DOCG (Denominazione di Origine Controllata Garantita), wineries source their glass from nearby Empoli, creating unique, local bottles (Chianti Fiasco), and also enabling consumers to bring their own bottle to a Vino Sfuso to establish a relationship and familiarity with local producers. These types of short, local, small supply chains result in changes that can have long-term sustainable benefits to the wine destination, supporting the economic, the socio-cultural, and the environmental elements of a region (Sigala 2020). The changes developed through the supply side of a wine region also foster symbiotic relationships between the destination and the tourist that can result in transformation (Ateljevic 2020; Senese 2016).

Sørensen and Baerenholdt (2020) have addressed the circular economy in a context marked not only by the importance of changes in the supply side of production, but also the importance of consumption and the role of the tourist through a three-step model focusing on (1) the providers’ production/service activities, (2) tourism opportunities focused on new ownership and sharing models, and (3) tourist practices in consuming experiences and engaging in practices that reduce environmental footprints, thereby encouraging resource-intensive production as part of a sustainable future. Researchers argue that these strategies require building tourism products and services focused on new business-user relations supporting de-marketed or de-commodified tourist practices that facilitate change as part of a circular economy (Sorensen and Baerenholdt 2020; MacArthur 2013).

Summary of Literature Review

Our review of literature has identified that there are research gaps in the field of educational tourism that the Castello Sonnino case study will help to clarify. First, researchers identify that there are only a few studies that address altruism as a motivational factor influencing host-host and host-guest relationships applied to an educational setting in a slow food destination. Second, we require more research on the role of slow food in supporting the sustainability of small-scale tourism through educational centres such as Castello Sonnino. Finally, there is also a need to identify how industry practices can, if they aren’t already, contributing to environmental, economic, social, and cultural sustainability.

Exploratory Case Study and Qualitative Methodologies

To achieve the objectives of this case study on small-scale tourism, we focused on participatory, co-transformative learning, and mindful sustainability (Pritchard et al. 2011). Our three themes of altruism, slow tourism, and sustainable development are explored through the socio-cultural context of educational tourism at Castello Sonnino. Case studies are useful for understanding people, events, experiences, and organizations in their social and historical context (Veal 2017; Singh, Milne, and Hull 2012). As a result, place-specific insights that represent the participants’ perspective are generated to provide a holistic and meaningful understanding of real-life events (Yin 2018).

Qualitative analysis, including focus groups and in-depth interviews in particular, allow for co-creation of transdisciplinary knowledge, which is particularly important in sustainability research (Mauser et al. 2013). A mixed-methods research strategy included ten semi-structured interviews conducted with experts in the wine and wine tourism industries in the study area. The semi-structured, open-ended interviews enabled industry experts to share their unique perspective on how reciprocal altruism can influence sustainable tourism development and contribute to the social capital of a community. These semi-structured interviews took a fluid conversational approach that lasted approximately one hour, depending on the expertise and interest of each subject. Five topic areas were used to guide each conversation: wine region environment; short and long-term sustainability; organic/bio-dynamic farming practices; food and tourism within the context of local culture; and the process and impact of the wine label. All ten industry participants also participated in the educational experiences of the educational field course as guest lecturers, workshop facilitators, or hospitality managers and hosts.

Nineteen university students participated in an experiential course, living and working at the Castello Sonnino estate between 29 April and 20 May 2018. The students participated in focus groups at the end of their trip to reflect on their experiences and summarize the key conceptualization of food and wine sustainability experienced during the course. Auto-ethnographies of experiential educational tourism by the field school instructor and a student followed an approach outlined by Chang (2016, 46) that combines cultural analysis and interpretation with narrative details of experience and stories that are reflected upon, analyzed, and interpreted within a broad socio-cultural context. Additionally, a detailed daily journal kept by a co-investigator records impressions of repeated topics, emerging themes, and salient patterns (Chang 2016, 131). All interviews and focus groups were transcribed and coded in NVivo 12.7.0 qualitative analysis software (QSR 2018), along with the outcomes from the reflective observations and auto-ethnographies. This qualitative analysis generated three key themes and narratives representing small altruistic tourism, and these are described in the results of this case study.

Case Study: Castello Sonnino—Caring for Place

Background

Florence, like other large regional cities in Italy, may be the nerve centre of international educational tourism in the country (De La Pierre and Bracci 2021); however, it is the interest and interplay between wine and food production from landscapes that are healthy, environmentally sound, and sustainable (Saxena et. al 2007) that drives experiential educational tourism in many parts of Tuscany. Globally, the demand for experiential forms of travel encouraged farmers and wine makers outside of their primary industries into the world of hospitality, tourism, and education (Knowd 2006; Sonnino 2004). Educational programs in regions of wine and food production that provide an opportunity for experiential and transformative tourism has its roots in Mezirow’s (1991) theory of transformative learning and is believed to satisfy a growing need to learn and consume in a manner that is fulfilling and highly personalized (Soulard et al. 2021). Wine and food are among the most salient and defining markers of place, profoundly rooted as they are in historical, cultural, and environmental origins. The experiential opportunities for educational tourism in wine and food destinations that are small-scale, and values-based, works toward ethical ideals that promote reciprocal partnerships for co-learning among hosts, students, and educators.

When Caterina and Alessandro de Renzis Sonnino inherited the historic estate from their ancestors and began restoration of the villa at Castello Sonnino in the 1980s, the importance of kin and family lineage assumed a central place in their intentions to restore the estate. During the restoration they came across the personal documents of their ancestor, Sidney Sonnino. The documents detailed Sidney Sonnino’s time in politics as prime minister, minister of foreign affairs, and secretary treasurer of Italy between 1889 and 1910. Sidney Sonnino was also a prolific writer, and inspired by the writings of they uncovered, the couple used his personal library to create a historical archive, the Sidney Sonnino Study Centre, with the support of academics from the Universities of Florence and Pisa. Their work drew attention to Sonnino’s liberal thought and work in relation to the issues of a rural renaissance in modern times. Continuing to recognize the estate as a valuable witness of the past, some years later, the de Renzis Sonnino family also created the Sonnino International Education Centre (SIEC), envisioned to encourage educated thought about a sustainable future for rural communities and agrarian life and landscape. In 2013, SIEC began hosting university educators, researchers, and students with interests in preserving the natural environment and the cultural heritage of this place for future generations. SIEC opened as one of the only operating farms, wineries, and historic sites in Tuscany, offering the university community on-site experiential learning and research opportunities together with formal academic instruction. A network of scholars from Italian and international universities, local practitioners, entrepreneurs, and leaders from the local community began to use the Castello’s unique character as a preserved but functioning family-run agricultural and viticultural operation to provide both educational opportunities and support for the local community.

The Italian mezzadria left a living landscape handed down through kin relationships of large ruling landowners and the peasant families who produced the food. In the late 1980s the current occupants of Castello Sonnino, Barone and Baronessa de Renzis Sonnino, moved to the abandoned estate in a quest for refuge from the city and a pleasant home in which to start a family. Their desire to return to the roots and traditions of the ancestors who have owned the property for centuries led them through a journey of historical discovery of the long line of famous Italian families that have resided in the estate since the thirteenth century, including the Macchiavelli and Gucciardini families. It was, however, their homage to kin, especially Sidney Sonnino, who in his time proposed major changes to rural life, economy, and landscape for families of peasant farmers in Italy, that formalized their vision for a restored and sustainable Castello Sonnino. Their forward-looking projects have never lost sight of the past, and they continue on in the work of their children, Virginia and Leone, who have played a central role in running the estate farm, winery, and education centre since their father Alessandro’s tragic loss to the COVID-19 epidemic in March of 2021.

The geographical position and scale of the estate, adjacent to the village of Montespertoli, provides opportunities for students and scholars to experience farm life, sustainable agricultural production, as well as the quotidian pattern of life among members of a Tuscan village. Montespertoli, a market town and historical trading hub, lies at the gates of Castello Sonnino, which has served as the heart and engine of the cultural and socio-economic life of the village for centuries. The close relationship between village and estate provides students and researchers with the opportunity for immersion in the environment, culture, history, and circular economy, not simply the study of it. The landscape of the ancient mezzadria provides the foundation of the classroom at SIEC, with access to the remnants of a reciprocal agricultural system based on small-lot mixed farming and woodlot management, with whatever processing industry was required of the community. At Sonnino this meant a grain mill that still operates in the village, a brick-making facility, and the production of power. The complete economy of the mezzadria has left a living landscape that has remained relatively unchanged as a fortunate result of the EU Landscape Convention, and in particular the Florence Conventions of 2000 and 2004, which demarcated the agricultural landscape as a public good or asset. In keeping with the Florence Conventions, which emphasize the importance of landscape to the social well-being and quality of life for people everywhere, walking paths and community or social gardens for those in the village are maintained for public access at the estate, and students at SIEC are encouraged through volunteerism and organized workshops to maintain and care for these assets.

In the midst of the Tuscan hills, the Sonnino family and SIEC envision an innovative, interactive, post-disciplinary model that demonstrates how historical places can be transformed into sustainable entities in modern times, while still respecting their traditions. The post-disciplinary nature of courses at SIEC varies; however, they all share a fundamental appreciation for the value of hands-on experience to impart an understanding of how best to use traditional local knowledge to care, account, and show respect for the places and cultures of food systems in circular community relationships. Community-based learning at SIEC has ranged in focus, but has been concentrated, therefore, on the preservation of ecosystems services, biodiversity, and connections between agricultural production, rural life, history, social and cultural fabric, health, and the environment (De La Pierre and Bracci 2021, 111). SIEC maintains a small-scale setting for courses, and limits accommodation to a maximum of twenty students in four restored farmhouse apartments on the estate, each complete with traditional Tuscan kitchens. The historical archive and private library are made available to researchers, instructors, and students, but the bulk of instructional time takes place in the estate learning garden, or orto, as well as in the olive orchards, grain fields, woodlots, and vineyards, where students, instructors, and researchers are welcome to work during organized workshops, or as volunteers. On request, experiential workshops are also arranged on a variety of topics, including the social, economic, and political history of the region; Tuscan language and culture; vineyard and orchard management; geology and terroir; winemaking, cellaring, and marketing; sustainable tourism; agricultural and food security; ancient grain preservation; and traditional trade, restoration, and culinary practices. There are a number of important archaeological sites in the territory available for exploration. The estate also boasts a small lake, available for hydrological study. University courses at SIEC range in length from three weeks to full fourteen-week semesters. Coursework completed at SIEC has come from programs in sustainability, geography, geology, business management, hospitality and tourism, sociology, and agriculture and food systems.

Student practicums in a variety of local businesses are also a part of coursework at SIEC. The practicums serve to link students to the local community, provide experiential field work and training, and promote opportunities for a community-based flipped classroom (De La Pierre and Bracci 2021). The practicums offer students a unique opportunity to identify, connect, analyze, and apply useful theories and concepts highlighted in their coursework on, and their experiences related to, sustainable agriculture, food security, and food systems, all in the context of the local circular economy. Such pedagogy enhances the capacity for lifelong learning, reflective practice, and professional development. In practicum, students intern and volunteer with a local farmer, experience sustainable farming practices in Tuscany, and learn directly the challenges that local farmers encounter in the face of an international agri-business market dominated by multinational companies.

Like other Canadian universities, the University of British Columbia—Okanagan Campus encourages students to engage with both local and global communities. While university mission statements contain a wealth of good intentions regarding community-based learning, global citizenship, and internationalization, less attention is paid to ensuring these experiences are transformative for the student and the host community. Our auto-ethnographic reflections are derived from the experiences of the authors during the course Rural Sustainability: Wine, Food and Tourism in Tuscany held at Castello Sonnino. The learning objectives of the course include student reflection on the lived meaning of sustainability in the overlapping industries of wine and tourism, and on the methods and means of resilience to vulnerabilities in wine and wine tourism regions.

Results

Our Castello Sonnino small-scale educational tourism case study reveals three interwoven themes that demonstrate how altruism plays a critical role in host-host and host-guest relationships that benefit slow tourism and the sustainability of the Castello Sonnino estate, the small village of Montespertoli, and the broader region of Tuscany. The first theme to emerge is that the promotion of small tourism through typical cuisine results in mutual benefits for hosts. The second emergent theme is the importance of tourists experiencing the processes of small tourism and sustainable development for themselves. The final theme reveals the benefits of reciprocal altruism between educational tourists and their hosts that are achieved through participatory agri-tourism.

Promoting Distinctiveness through Typical Cuisine: Small Villages, Sense of Place, Mutual Benefits

Promoting “typical” styles of cuisine and wine create a unique experience for tourists and helps define a sense of place. To establish a perception among consumers that they will have a unique sensory experience they cannot have anywhere else, a sense of place needs to be emphasized through the promotion of a specific terroir, which gives food and wine a “somewhere-ness” (Easingwood, Lockshin, and Spawton 2011). While globalization pushed many farmers to engage in homogenized, low-cost mass production, creating undifferentiated foods, farmers throughout Italy are focusing more on traditional items that reflect their areas (Bianchi 2011), which provide exclusive experiences through locally identified production (Overton and Murray 2011).

Tourists want to connect to the culture and places they travel to, and local food traditions are an effective way of doing this (Everett and Aitchison 2008) by establishing unique associations with the destination (Kah, Shin, and Lee 2020). By creating an association between a specific culinary heritage and a small village, a region can form a unique identity. This process requires each town to focus on what they believe is “typical” so that they can work together to promote this uniqueness. This host-to-host co-operation results in reciprocal altruistic behaviour with the aim of gaining future benefits (Paraskevaidis and Andriotis 2017). A student working for one of the local producer offered the following observation:

There’s no [acting independently] for my brand. . . . It’s less about that and I think more about the story behind it. I guess it is more about the co-operation. I think it’s really cool if one winery is doing something, not to make their wine better than everyone else, but they do it because there is a social responsibility between one another. (Student focus group)

When traveling between the small village of Montespertoli and neighbouring towns, producers promote tourism by emphasizing the typical cuisine. This collective focus on the symbolic power of food has the ability to establish a culinary heritage in a given area (Bessière 1998). In this way, the host-to-host co-operatives not only enhanced the benefits for each small village, but also for the entire region, as consumers were seeking to experience the cuisine that made each place unique (Colombini 2015). Individual wineries and food producers have a history and story they can communicate to build a connection with consumers, and through reciprocal altruistic behaviour, typical cuisine can be promoted to create small tourism that benefits the villages and the larger image of the area (Timothy and Ron 2013). Mutual success can be amplified by working together to share knowledge, develop typical products, and create marketing together, so as to develop a more robust local industry (Fennell 2006). Importantly, it is these local foodways that provide a distinctiveness to the region (Long 2004) and support the needs of a local economy by encouraging slower, smaller, and more interconnected food systems. As one of our industry interviewees noted, each town has “typical sausage, typical pecorino, and even typical jokes.”

Experiencing Local Culture: Nose to the Olive and Grain Grindstone

Living in a small village in Montespertoli enabled the student tourists to interact with the producers and residents of the community, not only to observe the circular socio-economy, but also to interact and participate in it. When tourists insert themselves temporarily into communities, it opens the door for relationships that can result in co-operation and altruistic partnerships (Fennell 2006). Students made daily trips into the village to procure food and supplies from the local butcher, markets, pizzerias, and shops, affording the opportunity to establish relationships with the store owners and locals. There is a strong incentive for the host producers and visiting guests to perform altruistic acts and establish reciprocity because the visitors will be spending money daily within the village, and they will gravitate to a positive local experience. In this way, our students became “cultural creatives,” who travel to find connection and meaningful experiences that allow them to develop personally (Ateljevic, Sheldon, and Tomljenović 2016). Cultural creatives value what is slow, small, and local—especially food (Ateljevic 2020).

The business makes a difference. . . . Supporting an underdog makes me feel good. Something I like to do. If there’s no person . . . it’s very kind of, like, ambiguous. And my money is basically just going to a company. Then I’m not supporting the underdog. (Student focus group)

A common way of strengthening this connection was for producers to appear small and without large commercial interests. This can often be achieved by emphasizing that the product was created by hand in a genuine way (Beverland and Luxton 2005). Cultural creatives value small and local, so downplaying the commercial aspect by making the production sound more like craftmanship is an effective way of creating a memorable experience (Alexander 2009).

I think one of the most important things for me was just learning what goes behind a bottle of wine because . . . when you learn the history . . . you learn to like the way it’s changed the socio-economics behind it, and the culture and the production and everything that goes into one single glass. I think it gives a lot more appreciation for what you’re drinking. (Student focus group)

Students did acknowledge the modernization and technology being used by producers, specifically wineries. However, they appreciated when these commercial processes were downplayed, and the tradition and heritage of the production emphasized.

When I think of traditional knowledge . . . they [Tuscan wineries] really take that and apply it to modern ways of winemaking, but they still try to maintain the integrity of the traditional knowledge as well. (Student focus group)

One way for cultural creatives to have meaningful experiences is to have their local connections demonstrate the traditional art of producing the food and allow them to experience the process for themselves. Students in this study were able to do this at the local grist mill known as Paciscopi. This mill in Montespertoli has traditionally acted as an important point in the local supply chain for the village. There are eleven ancient grains that have been historically grown at farm estates in the region, including at Sonnino. The grain from these estates is milled into a local traditional flour exclusively at Paciscopi, and the flour is then used by local bakeries to make products for the community, including the local elementary school—as well as the bread and pizza that was regularly consumed by the students.

By visiting the local grist mill, students were able to appreciate the circular economy, where the basic ingredients of daily food are found in surrounding farms, processed in place, and sold down the street in local stores.

I don’t know, like just being here, I realized all the ingredients are a lot . . . less processed. I feel like their tomato sauces taste a lot better. I understand that the grains are a lot better for us. So . . . if you think about that aspect, then you would assume the wines are organic, or better quality than what we would have back in North America. (Student focus group)

Another student offered a similar opinion:

The way they did the things that they’ve accomplished, like using the old grain and the biscuits . . . I found it was very, very innovative, and I’m thinking . . . it was kind of much more . . . traditional since there’s still a very luxurious feeling to it, which is what I think a lot of tourists come looking for. (Student focus group)

Importantly, students not only toured the facility, but were able to experience and interact with the mill. They were taught about traditional knowledge like the old grindstone that grinds the grains into flour, and then were given the opportunity to pick up the tools and use the grindstone themselves, producing flour that could be bagged and used to make food. This experiential tourism helped build a connection to place and reinforce the reciprocal relationship that the tourists have with local producers, especially in small villages like Montespertoli.

Slow Educational Tourism: Reciprocity and the Mutual Benefits of Participatory Agri-tourism

Tourists are interested in learning about and interacting with ancient traditions, and this type of educational tourism can be experienced on a working farm like Castello Sonnino. When tourists live and work at a host producer, an altruistic partnership can be created (Fennell 2006). This relationship is centred around reciprocal altruism, which is motivated by a common vision aimed at providing community benefits, while also expecting personal benefits (Paraskevaidis and Andriotis 2017). Specifically, our students were motivated to help the host produce food and wine, all while benefiting from the hands-on learning experience. Conversely, the host is motivated to provide a meaningful educational experience, while expecting the benefit of having students work on the property and purchase goods from their store.

Agri-tourism has three common features that provide a successful participatory tourism experience: a working farm, contact with agricultural activity, and an authentic agricultural experience for tourists (Di Gregorio 2017). Such authentic farm experiences can be achieved by staying the night in a traditional country home, walking among farm animals, touring the vineyards, riding a tractor, stomping the grapes, or drinking wine directly from a barrel (Randelli and Martellozzo 2018).

They provided an effective agri-tourism experience. They brought you to the field, showed you the crops . . . then they did the same with the wine. (Student focus group)

During our field course, students had the opportunity to volunteer in many aspects of the working farm and winery. Many students highlighted working in an experimental bio-dynamic vineyard as memorable. Castello Sonnino has planted bio-dynamic plots to understand how this practice can be used to develop more sustainable vineyards, and to teach students about the impacts of this farming technique. The process of using ancient techniques to hand till the land, create compost, and prune the vines is laborious, so having students work the land is advantageous for the farm. For their part the students, who were instructed by a charismatic teacher on the spiritual significance of their work and the long-term sustainability of these practices, were able to better appreciate the taste of the wine.

Students also visited an organic winery, Tenuta di Valgiano, which operates as a host to Willing Workers on Organic Farms (WWOOF), an organization that offers volunteer workers the opportunity to experience life on an organic farm by becoming fully immersed in the day-to-day activities of organic growing methods (McIntosh and Bonnemann 2006). Accommodation and food are provided for visitors in exchange for volunteer work on the farm property (McIntosh and Campbell 2001). Students in this case study were provided with an in-depth tour of Tenuta di Valgiano’s bio-dynamic farming practices, which are used to grow different varietals within the same plot; these are then blended to produce a wine that expresses its unique terroir. This experience taught students the importance of place in the production process, as well as the importance of sustainable best practices in the production of quality wine and food products that protect local environments. On this interactive tour, students were allowed to syphon wine out of a barrel and pass it around to experience how bio-dynamic wine tasted and felt.

We want to maintain traditional methods through modern technology. Grow natural grains with the vines. Maintain organic even as we grow. (Industry interview)

And then we went there, and he literally takes the wine out of the barrel and just hands around a glass. So, you see . . . the difference in how they want to present the wine, who they’re directing it toward. (Student focus group)

In this way, the students developed reciprocal relationships with their hosts by volunteering at the farms, providing clear community benefits that supported sustainable farming practices in the bio-dynamic vineyards that protect local environments. Students experienced the personal benefits of learning about these methods through participatory agri-tourism.

Discussion

The two main objectives of this research have been, first, to understand the role of altruism in promoting slow tourism. Students through their courses were volunteer tourists whose altruism vis-à-vis Sonnino, Montespertoli, and Tuscany increased over time. They developed motives that caused them to want to help their hosts in the region. As volunteer tourists, they visited a destination to offer their services, gain work experience, and increase welfare in the host society (Weaver 2015; Wearing and McGehee 2013; Zahra and McGehee 2013; Tomazos and Butler 2012). Over their three-week course, they contributed to the social capital of the community, becoming motivated by an attachment to the place and emotional ties within the community (Paraskevaidis and Andriotis 2017; Alonso and Liu 2013; Smith and Holmes 2012). As one student commented, “when you learn the history behind [the wine], you learn the culture and production and develop a relationship with more of a connection to it” (student focus group). These experiences resulted in a type of altruism that encourages direct social exchanges between hosts and guests, when contributions are “separately performed, non-negotiated, and initiated by performing beneficial acts for another” (Paraskevaidis and Andriotis 2017, 27). Participation in the production and consumption of agricultural products through experiential education allowed the students to immerse themselves in authentic experiences to develop relationships with place and the people of that place that resonated through the longer-term connections characteristic of slow tourism. Slow tourism values authenticity, quality, education, conservation, and the protection of partnerships between local agents (Saxena et al. 2007). Slow tourism also supports sustainable values based in territory, landscape, and culture, through an outgrowth of the sustainable development movement that is fostered through the Sonnino educational centre.

Secondly, this research has sought to understand the role of the Sonnino family in implementing innovative, multi-functional, and sustainable development strategies that are preserving the environment and cultural heritage in the village of Montespertoli and in the larger region of Tuscany. Even though the educational centre has provided educational experiences of three to twelve weeks for students, these relatively brief relationships between hosts and guests have grown into a longer-term “terroir of holistic relationships” as a result of slow tourism experiences (Fusté-Forné and Jamal, 2020). The residual and altruistic sense of caring for place is well illustrated by the desire of students to return to Castello Sonnino in order to sustain the Sonnino family’s dream of keeping the farm alive and supporting the production and sale of artisanal agricultural products. Several students have now returned to the estate as volunteer educators to assist and guide other educational programs in the years since their own field experience. During a 2022 field course at Castello Sonnino, the group was visited by two sets of parents of former Sonnino students from Canada who needed to explore the place that “had so profoundly influenced” the career paths and land-food relationships of their children. As one of those family members explained in an industry interview, “wine must be welcoming—you know, to make a toast bigger, giving it a bit of food, something which you know brings people together, having fun and staying together, that’s a beautiful thing.” These types of reciprocal relationships, as demonstrated by the hospitality extended to returning students, their parents, and instructors by family members of the Sonnino estate and their employees, is sustaining a small-scale tourism industry that is grounded in slow tourism.

Conclusion

This case study focusing on a small-scale educational tourism enterprise illustrates the important role of host-host and host-guest relationships in small tourism that embraces altruism, slow tourism, and sustainable development. Specifically, the study suggests that direct reciprocal altruism is a motivating factor influencing sustainable tourism development, and that these altruistic acts support the sustainability of small-scale tourism programs at educational centres such as Castello Sonnino. Direct reciprocal altruism between hosts can contribute to the social capital of a community (Paraskevaidis and Andriotis 2017; Alonso and Liu 2013; Smith and Holmes 2012) by establishing unique associations with the destination. By working together to focus more on traditional items that reflect the area (Bianchi 2011) and emphasizing the typical styles of cuisine and wine, hosts can define a sense of place that promotes the distinctiveness of their region (Long 2004). Tourists desire exclusive experiences through locally identified production (Overton and Murray 2011), and study confirms that small sustainable tourism can be achieved by host-to-host reciprocal altruistic behaviour that creates a sense of place.

Small tourism that embraces slow tourism and a circular social economy has existed between the village and the Castello Sonnino estate for centuries, and the demand for experiences that are slow, small, and local is, along with the host-guest relationship, essential to providing this. Tourists, especially cultural creatives, are looking for meaning and transformation, and altruistic partnerships can play a significant role in developing small sustainable tourism. Experiential tourism helps tourists build a connection to a place and demonstrates the importance of hosts establishing reciprocity with their guests, who are willing to spend money in exchange for a positive local experience. Enabling tourists to interact in the circular economy for themselves is an effective strategy to engage visitors in the everyday life of a destination.

Estates like Castello Sonnino provide a place for slow, small tourism deeply embedded in the local experience. Inspired by Sidney Sonnino’s goals of universal suffrage, literacy, and long-term sustainable leases for farming families, the Sonnino family, through kin relationships, have set out to restore and improve the estate. Students in this case study benefited from the hands-on learning experiences provided by their hosts, showing them the sustainable best practices that produce local food and wine, while also protecting and preserving the local environments. These participatory tourism experiences developed at Castello Sonnino have helped diversify small-scale tourism offerings in the region, and have transformed the estate into an economically viable and internationally recognized rural centre for sustainable development. Importantly, this case study has demonstrated that altruism——in this case, between hosts and students at the SEIC—plays an important motivating role in small tourism and shows how it can help preserve the environment and cultural heritage for future generations.

Limitations and Future Research

Our case study revealed two areas of limitation that could be explored in further research. First, our study explored the impact of a host-guest altruistic relationship in one three-week course. This was done by examining the experiences of students who participated in an experiential course and who lived and worked at the Castello Sonnino estate between 29 April and 20 May 2018. Further research, however, could explore the altruistic relationships resulting from longer-term educational experiences via longitudinal analysis. This could include more long-term educational experiential programs at Castello Sonnino, or at WWOOF organizations. Second, our study looked briefly at kin relationships at the Castello Sonnino. There is an opportunity to go into more detail about how kin relationships can be a motivating factor for small tourism, and a driving force for long-term sustainability.

References

• Alexander, Nicholas. 2009. “Brand Authentication: Creating and Maintaining Brand Auras.” European Journal of Marketing 43, nos. 3–4: 551–62.

• Alonso, Abel Duarte, and Yi Liu. 2013. “Local Community, Volunteering and Tourism Development: The Case of the Blackwood River Valley, Western Australia.” Current Issues in Tourism 16, no. 1: 47–62.

• Andersen, Mikael Skou. 2007. “An Introductory Note on the Environmental Economics of the Circular Economy.” Sustainability Science 2, no. 1: 133–40.

• Anderson, Emma, and Grant Cairncross. 2005. “Understanding and Managing Volunteer Motivation: Two Regional Tourism Cases.” Australian Journal on Volunteering 10, no. 2: 7.

• Andriotis, Konstantinos, and George Agiomirgianakis. 2014. “Market Escape through Exchange: Home Swap as a Form of Non-commercial Hospitality.” Current Issues in Tourism 17, no. 7: 576–91.

• Ateljevic, Irena. 2020. “Transforming the (Tourism) World for Good And (Re)Generating the Potential ‘New Normal.’” Tourism Geographies 22, no. 3: 467–75.

• Ateljevic, Irena, Pauline Sheldon, and Renata Tomljenović. 2016. “The New Paradigm of the 21st Century, ‘Silent Revolution’ of Cultural Creatives and Transformative Tourism of and for the Future.” In Affiliate Members Global Reports, vol. 14, The Transformative Power of Tourism: A Paradigm Shift towards a More Responsible Traveller, 12–20. Madrid: UNWTO. https://doi.org/10.18111/9789284417834.

• Beer, Andrew, and David Watson. 2009. “The Individual and Group Loyalty Scales (IGLS): Construction and Preliminary Validation.” Journal of Personality Assessment 91, no. 3: 277–87.

• Bessière, Jacinthe. 1998. “Local Development and Heritage: Traditional Food and Cuisine as Tourist Attractions in Rural Areas.” Sociologia ruralis 38, no. 1: 21–34.

• Beverland, Michael, and Sandra Luxton. 2005. “Managing Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) through Strategic Decoupling: How Luxury Wine Firms Retain Brand Leadership while Appearing to Be Wedded to the Past.” Journal of Advertising 34, no. 4: 103–16.

• Bianchi, Rossella. 2011. “From Agricultural to Rural: Agritourism as a Productive Option.” In Food, Agri-culture and Tourism, edited by Katia Laura Sidali, Achim Spiller, and Birgit Schulze, 56–71. Berlin: Springer.

• Brouder, Patrick. 2017. “Evolutionary Economic Geography: Reflections from a Sustainable Tourism Perspective.” Tourism Geographies 19, no. 3: 438–47.

• Camuto, Robert. 2016. “The Prodigal Antinori: Decades after Selling Ornellaia, the Black Sheep of One of Italy’s Leading Wine Families Performs an Encore.” Wine Spectator 41, no. 9: 36–49.

• Chang, Heewon. 2016. Autoethnography as Method. London: Routledge.

• Clancy, Michael, ed. 2017. Slow Tourism, Food and Cities: Pace and the Search for the “Good Life.” Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

• Colombini, Donatella Cineli. 2015. “Wine Tourism in Italy.” International Journal of Wine Research 7:29–35.

• Cresswell, Tim. 2010. “Towards a Politics of Mobility.” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 28, no. 1: 17–31.

• Croce, Erica, and Giovanni Perri. 2008. “Il turismo enogastronomico.” In Progettare, gestire, vivere, 1–21. Scienze e professioni del turismo. Milano: Franco Angeli.

• De La Pierre, Marco, and Marco Bracci. 2021. Study Abroad in Italy: Fra economia della conoscenza, turismo e soft power. Firenze: Autopubblicato.

• Dickinson, Janet, and Les Lumsdon. 2010. Slow Travel and Tourism. London: Earthscan.

• Di Gregorio, Dante. 2017. “Place-Based Business Models for Resilient Local Economies.” Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy 11, no. 1: 113–28.

• Easingwood, Chris, Larry Lockshin, and Anthony Spawton. 2011. “The Drivers of Wine Regionality.” Journal of Wine Research 22, no. 1: 19–33.

• Everett, Sally, and Cara Aitchison. 2008. “The Role of Food Tourism in Sustaining Regional Identity: A Case Study of Cornwall, South West England.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 16, no. 2: 150–67.

• Fennell, David A. 2006. “Evolution in Tourism: The Theory of Reciprocal Altruism and Tourist-Host Interactions.” Current Issues in Tourism 9, no. 2: 105–24.

• Fullagar, Simone, Kevin Markwell, and Erica Wilson, eds. 2012. Slow Tourism: Experiences and Mobilities. Bristol: Channel View Publications.

• Fusté-Forné, Francesc, and Tazim Jamal. 2020. “Slow Food Tourism: An Ethical Microtrend for the Anthropocene.” Journal of Tourism Futures 6, no. 3: 227–32. https://doi.org/10.1108/JTF-10-2019-0120.

• Gariglio, G., and F. Giavedoni. 2015. Slow Wine Guide 2015. Turin: Slow Food Editore.

• Gossling, S., D. Scott, and C.M Hall. 2020. “Pandemics, Tourism and Global Change: A Rapid Assessment of COVID-19.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 29, no 1: 1–20.

• Hamilton, William D. 1964. “The Genetical Evolution of Social Behaviour. II.” Journal of Theoretical Biology 7, no. 1: 17–52,

• Heitmann, Sine, Peter Robinson, and Ghislaine Povey. 2011. “Slow Foo d, Slow Cities and Slow Tourism.” In Research Themes for Tourism, 114–27. Wallingford, UK: CABI.

• IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources), UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), and WWF (World Wildlife Fund). 1980. World Conservation Strategy. Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development. Gland, CH: IUCN, UNEP, WWF.

• Kah, Junghye Angela, Hye Jin Shin, and Seong-Hoon Lee. 2020. “Traveler Sensoryscape Experiences and the Formation of Destination Identity.” Tourism Geographies 24, nos. 2–3: 475–94.

• Kim, Myung Ja, Choong-Ki Lee, and Mark Bonn. 2016. “The Effect of Social Capital and Altruism on Seniors’ Revisit Intention to Social Network Sites for Tourism-Related Purposes.” Tourism Management 53:96–107.

• Lockstone‐Binney, Leonie, Kirsten Holmes, Karen Smith, and Tom Baum. 2010. “Volunteers and Volunteering in Leisure: Social Science Perspectives.” Leisure Studies 29, no. 4: 435–55.

• Long, Lucy M. 2004. “A Folkloristic Perspective on Eating and Otherness.” In Culinary Tourism, 20–50. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.

• MacArthur, Ellen. 2013. “Towards the Circular Economy.” Journal of Industrial Ecology 2:23–44.

• Manniche, Jesper, Karin Topsø Larsen, Rikke Brandt Broegaard, and Emil Holland. 2017. Destination: A Circular Tourism Economy: A Handbook for Transitioning toward a Circular Economy within the Tourism and Hospitality Sectors in the South Baltic Region. Stenbrudsvej, DK: Centre for Regional & Tourism Research.

• Mauser, Wolfram, Gernot Klepper, Martin Rice, Bettina Susanne Schmalzbauer, Heide Hackmann, Rik Leemans, and Howard Moore. 2013. “Transdisciplinary Global Change Research: The Co-creation of Knowledge for Sustainability.” Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 5, nos. 3–4: 420–31.

• McGrath, Peter, and Richard Sharpley. 2017. “Slow Travel and Tourism: New Concept or New Label?” In Slow Tourism, Food and Cities: Pace and the Search for the “Good Life,” edited by Michael Clancy, 49–62. New York: Routledge.

• McIntosh, Alison J., and Susanne M. Bonnemann. 2006. “Willing Workers on Organic Farms (WWOOF): The Alternative Farm Stay Experience?” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 14, no. 1: 82–99.

• McIntosh, Alison, and Tamara Campbell. 2001. “Willing Workers on Organic Farms (WWOOF): A Neglected Aspect of Farm Tourism in New Zealand.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 9, no. 2: 111–27.

• Molm, Linda D., Jessica L. Collett, and David R. Schaefer. 2007. “Building Solidarity through Generalized Exchange: A Theory of Reciprocity.” American Journal of Sociology 113, no. 1: 205–42.

• Osiński, Jerzy. 2009. “Kin Altruism, Reciprocal Altruism and Social Discounting.” Personality and Individual Differences 47, no. 4: 374–8.

• Overton, John, and Warwick E. Murray. 2011. “Playing the Scales: Regional Transformations and the Differentiation of Rural Space in the Chilean Wine Industry.” Journal of Rural Studies 27, no. 1: 63–72.

• Pamfilie, Rodica, Daniela Firoiu, Adina-Gabriela Croitoru, and George Horia Ioan Ionescu. 2018. “Circular Economy—A New Direction for the Sustainability of the Hotel Industry in Romania.” Amfiteatru Economic 20, no. 48: 388–404.

• Paraskevaidis, Pavlos, and Konstantinos Andriotis. 2017. “Altruism in Tourism: Social Exchange Theory vs. Altruistic Surplus Phenomenon in Host Volunteering.” Annals of Tourism Research 62:26–37.

• Pritchard, Annette, Nigel Morgan, and Irena Ateljevic. 2011. “Hopeful Tourism: A New Transformative Perspective.” Annals of Tourism Research 38, no. 3: 941–63.

• QSR International Pty Ltd. NVivo Version 12. 2018. Available online: https://www.qsrinternational.com/nvivo-qualitative-data-analysis-software/home (accessed on 1 March 2022).

• Randelli, Filippo, and Federico Martellozzo. 2018. “The Impact of Rural Tourism on Land Use. The Case of Tuscany.” Working Papers—Economics wp2018_02.rdf, Universita’ degli Studi di Firenze, Dipartimento di Scienze per l’Economia e l’Impresa.

• Saxena, Gunjan, Gordon Clark, Tove Oliver, and Brian Ilbery. 2007. “Conceptualizing Integrated Rural Tourism.” Tourism Geographies 9, no. 4: 347–70.

• Saxena, Gunjan, and Brian Ilbery. 2008. “Integrated Rural Tourism: A Border Case Study.” Annals of Tourism Research 35, no. 1: 233–54.

• Senese, Donna M. 2016. “Transformative Wine Tourism in Mountain Communities.” In Mountain Tourism: Experiences, Communities, Environments and Sustainable Futures, edited by H. Richins and J.S. Hull, 121–30. Boston: Cabi.

• Sigala, Marianna. 2020. “Tourism and COVID-19: Impacts and Implications for Advancing and Resetting Industry and Research.” Journal of Business Research 117:312–21.

• Singh, E., S. Milne, and J. Hull. 2012. “Use of Mixed-Methods Case Study to Research Sustainable Tourism Development in South Pacific SIDS.” In Field Guide to Case Study Research in Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure, vol. 6, edited by K. F. Hyde, C. Ryan, A. G. Woodside, 457–78. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing.

• Smit, Barry, and Mark W. Skinner. 2002. “Adaptation Options in Agriculture to Climate Change: A Typology.” Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 7, no. 1: 85–114.

• Smith, Karen A., and Kirsten Holmes. 2012. “Visitor Centre Staffing: Involving Volunteers.” Tourism Management 33, no. 3: 562–8.

• Sørensen, Flemming, and Jørgen Ole Bærenholdt. 2020. “Tourist Practices in the Circular Economy.” Annals of Tourism Research 85:103027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.103027.

• Soulard, J., N McGehee, M. Stern and K. Lamoureux. “Transformative tourism: Tourists’ drawings, symbols and narratives of change.” Annals of Tourism Research 87:103141

• Timothy, Dallen J., and Amos S. Ron. 2013. “Understanding Heritage Cuisines and Tourism: Identity, Image, Authenticity, and Change.” Journal of Heritage Tourism 8, nos. 2–3: 99–104.

• Tomazos, Kostas, and Richard Butler. 2012. “Volunteer Tourists in the Field: A Question of Balance?” Tourism Management 33, no. 1: 177–87.

• Trivers, Robert L. 1971. “The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism.” Quarterly Review of Biology 46, no. 1: 35–57.

• UNEP (United Nations Environmental Programme) and UNWTO (United Nations World Tourism Organization). 2005. Making Tourism More Sustainable: A Guide for Policy Makers. Paris. UNEP.

• UNWTO (United Nations World Tourism Organization). 2020. Tourism and COVID-19. Madrid. UNWTO.

• Uriely, Natan, Zvi Schwartz, Eli Cohen, and Arie Reichel. 2002. “Rescuing Hikers in Israel’s Deserts: Community Altruism or an Extension of Adventure Tourism?” Journal of Leisure Research 34, no. 1: 25–36.

• Veal, Anthony James. 2017. Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism. London: Pearson Publishing.

• VisitMontespertoli. “A land of parish churches and small villages.” Comune di Montespertoli, accessed 27 March 2023. https://visitmontespertoli.it/a-territory-of-small-villages/?lang=en.

• WCED Special Working Session. 1987. “World Commission on Environment and Development.” Our Common Future 17, no. 1: 1–91.

• Wearing, Stephen, and Nancy Gard McGehee. 2013. “Volunteer Tourism: A Review.” Tourism Management 38:120–30.

• Weaver, David. 2015. “Volunteer Tourism and Beyond: Motivations and Barriers to Participation in Protected Area Enhancement.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 23, no. 5: 683–705.

• Williams, Allan M., Russell King, and Tony Warnes. 1997. “A Place in the Sun: International Retirement Migration from Northern to Southern Europe.” European Urban and Regional Studies 4, no. 2: 115–34.

• Wilson, David Sloan. 2015. Does Altruism Exist? Culture, Genes and the Welfare of Others. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

• Wright, Hayley. 2013. “Volunteer Tourism and Its (Mis)Perceptions: A Comparative Analysis of Tourist/Host Perceptions.” Tourism and Hospitality Research 13, no. 4: 239–50.

• Yin, Robert K. 2018. Case Study Research and Applications. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

• Zahra, Anne, and Nancy Gard McGehee. 2013. “Volunteer Tourism: A Host Community Capital Perspective.” Annals of Tourism Research 42:22–45.