GLOSSARY

AGGADAH: Hebrew or Aramaic: telling, narration. The component of rabbinic literature that is not concerned directly with legal issues (opposite of “halakhah”). Aggadah encompasses diverse topics and genres, including sermons that were delivered in synagogues during the era of the Talmud and Midrash.
ASHKENAZ [ENGLISH ADJECTIVE: ASHKENAZIC]: Taken from the name of an obscure nation mentioned in the Bible (Genesis 10:2), the term was adopted in the Middle Ages to designate Germany. It is used principally to refer to the Jews of Germany and their successors in eastern Europe, America, and other localities. Ashkenazic Jews evolved their own ritual customs and developed their distinctive vernacular, known as Yiddish, a German dialect with many borrowings from Hebrew, Aramaic, Romance, Slavic, and other languages.
BA’AL T’SHUVAH: Hebrew: a penitent. In recent usage, the expression is frequently used to designate previously non-observant Jews who take on a life of traditional religious observance.
BAREKHU: Hebrew: “Bless [the blessed Lord].” The invitation to prayer recited by the prayer leader at the beginning of the mandatory morning and evening services, in the presence of a quorum.
BEN AND BAT: Hebrew: son/daughter [of]. Traditional Hebrew names are usually composed of the given name and the name of the father; e.g., Isaac ben [son of] Abraham. A woman would be identified as Dinah bat [daughter of] Jacob.
B’RIT: Hebrew: covenant. The theological concept that the people of Israel have entered into a covenant with God that requires their obedience to the commandments of the Torah.
Specifically, the term is often used to designate circumcision, accepted as a sign of the covenant by Abraham and his descendants (Genesis 17:9–15). Normally, male Jewish infants are circumcised in a religious ceremony on the eighth day after birth.
BUBBEH: Yiddish (Slavic): Grandmother, old lady.
GA’ON: From Hebrew: pride. The title given to the head of the rabbinical academies in Babylonia and the Land of Israel during the early Islamic era.
During the medieval era, the title was occasionally attached to certain distinguished rabbis, such as Rabbi Nissim Ibn Shahin of Kairowan (eleventh century), and especially Rabbi Elijah of Vilna (1720–97). In contemporary usage, it is common to attach the honorific “Ga’on” to the name of almost any rabbi.
GABBAI: Hebrew: collector [of charity or taxes]. The term has been used in the past to indicate diverse administrative positions in the Jewish community. It is now used most commonly to designate the synagogue beadle in charge of organizing the prayer services.
GAN EDEN: Hebrew: The garden of Eden. The paradise inhabited by righteous souls in the afterlife.
GENIZAH: According to Jewish law it is forbidden to actively destroy or discard sacred texts. Religious books that have become unusable are placed in special depositories (usually in synagogues), where they are allowed to decompose naturally. Often, after the depositories become filled, they are transferred to a cemetery for interment in the earth. Such a depository (which can be an entire room or a simple box) is referred to in Hebrew as a genizah.
The Cairo Genizah was established in the twelfth century in a synagogue in Fustat, the Egyptian capital. Because of the dry climate that retarded decomposition, and their inclusive definition of what constitutes a sacred text (virtually anything written in the Hebrew alphabet, as was the custom among Arabic-speaking Jews even for simple business documents), the Cairo Genizah came to contain hundreds of thousands of texts, most of them in fragmentary state. The Genizah is not limited to literary works, but has personal letters, business contracts, and other invaluable records of daily life. It continued to be actively used until the late nineteenth century, when Solomon Schechter realized its importance and brought its remaining contents to Cambridge University. The study of the Genizah manuscripts has revolutionized virtually every area of ancient and medieval Jewish studies.
HALAKHAH [ENGLISH ADJECTIVE: “HALAKHIC”]: Apparently derived from the Hebrew word for “walking,” this term is used to designate the component of rabbinic activity and literature that deals with the derivation and application of religious law.
HANUKKAH: Hebrew: dedication; consecration. An eight-day celebration, beginning on the twenty-fifth day of the Hebrew month of Kislev (usually in December), in commemoration of the successful Jewish uprising against the religious persecutions of the Hellenistic Syrians under Antiochus IV in 168 B.C.E. The name alludes to the rededication of the Jerusalem Temple in 164 after it had been profaned by the pagans.
The festival is celebrated with the lighting of lamps every night, in commemoration of a legend in the Talmud about how a flask of pure oil that should only have sufficed for one day was miraculously able to illuminate the Temple for eight days.
HASSIDISM: From the Hebrew: piety. A religious revival movement that arose in eastern Europe in the latter eighteenth century under the charismatic leadership of Rabbi Israel ben Eliezer of Medzibozh, know as the “Ba’al Shem Tov“ or “Besht.” Hassidism incorporated many elements of previous Jewish religiosity, but was distinguished by its preference for spontaneous religious fervour over scholarly erudition and Talmudic study. Hassidism formulated a popular mystical doctrine based on the Kabbalah, and stressed forms of religious expression that could be observed by the common and uneducated classes; a fact that provoked fierce opposition from the scholarly religious leadership.
Later generations of Hassidism adopted a charismatic model of leadership in which local leaders served as spiritual intermediaries, and were revered as supernatural wonder-workers.
KABBALAH: Hebrew: received tradition. An esoteric interpretation of Judaism based on a symbolic structure of ten emanated powers (sefirot) through which the unknowable God created and guides the universe, and through which humans can interact with the divine realms. Kabbalistic doctrine is first attested in southern France and Spain in the twelfth century. Kabbalists utilize the symbolism of the ten sefirot to provide profound allegorical interpretation of the Bible and other classic Jewish texts, and to attach cosmic metaphysical significance to the observance of Jewish commandments and laws.
The term “Kabbalah” is often employed in a more general way to designate all manifestations of Jewish mysticism.
KARAITES: “Scripturalists”; a Jewish movement that arose in the eighth century, claiming to acknowledge only the authority of the Bible, while rejecting the oral tradition that was advocated by the rabbis and embodied in the Mishnah and Talmud.
KETUBBAH: Hebrew: written document. The Jewish marriage contract, a prenuptial agreement in which the couple set out their legal responsibilities to one another, and the obligations undertaken by the husband (or his estate) to support the wife in the event of the termination of the marriage through divorce or death.
KOHEN [PLURAL: KOHANIM]: Priest. According to the Torah, all priests are descendants of Moses’ older brother Aaron. This family was set aside to conduct the divine worship in the holy temple, including the offering of sacrifices. The Kohens were subject to stringent laws of holiness and purity, and were supported by prescribed portions of produce that were set aside for their upkeep. Since the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple and the consequent inability to offer sacrifices or maintain standards of purity, the Kohens’ role remains largely symbolic, limited to such features as being the first to participate in the liturgical reading of the Torah, avoidance of corpses and cemeteries, and the recitation of a special “priestly blessing” in the synagogue.
KOSHER: Hebrew, kasher: fit; proper. Usually employed to designate food that is permissible for consumption in accordance with the Jewish dietary rules.
MAIMONIDES, RABBI MOSES (1135–1204): Rabbi Moses ben Maimon, known also by his Hebrew acronym Rambam, was one of the most prominent and influential Jewish scholars of the time. Born in Spain, his family fled persecution settling in Fustat (Cairo), Egypt, where he was active as physician, scholar, and community leader. Maimonides formulated a controversial integration of traditional Judaism and Aristotelian philosophy. His major works include: his Arabic commentary to the Mishnah; his enumeration of the 613 Commandments of the Torah; the Mishneh Torah, a comprehensive and systematic codification of all of Jewish law; and the Guide of the Perplexed, his philosophical masterpiece.
MATZAH: Hebrew: Unleavened bread, consumed on the biblical festival of Passover (Exodus 12:39; 13:6, etc.).
ME’AH SHE’ARIM: A well-known neighbourhood in Jerusalem inhabited by traditionally religious Jews.
MESSIAH [ENGLISH ADJECTIVE: MESSIANIC]: From the Hebrew: anointed. In biblical times, the ceremonies for installing priests and kings involved the ritual anointing of their heads with olive oil. Hence, the vision of restored Jewish sovereignty in a redeemed future came to be associated with the figure of an anointed monarch from the line of King David, who will rule over an ideal and united Israel in the end of days.
MEZUZAH: Hebrew: doorpost. A parchment containing biblical texts that is attached to the doorposts of houses and rooms in fulfillment of the biblical precept “And thou shalt write them upon the posts of thy house, and on thy gates” (Deuteronomy 6:9, etc.).
MIDRASH: The component of ancient rabbinic teachings and literature that is related to the Bible. The term “Midrash” (from a root meaning “search, seek”) can refer to the method of interpretation, to the teachings themselves, or to the collections and books in which they appear. Midrash can be exegetical, focusing on the systematic interpretation of biblical texts; or homiletic, using biblical quotations to fashion an artistically structured literary sermon.
MINYAN: Hebrew: quorum. In traditional Jewish practice, the quorum of ten adult male Jews required for the performance of the full prayer service and various other rituals. In colloquial usage, “minyan” is sometimes used to refer to the worship service itself.
MISHNAH: A collection of traditions, assembling the decisions and opinions of Jewish sages, mostly from the first two centuries C.E. Composed in Hebrew, the Mishnah classifies the major areas of Jewish religious law into six main topics (“orders”), which are in turn subdivided into some sixty treatises (“tractates”). The Mishnah is differentiated from other collections produced at the time by the fact that it follows a logical, topical order, rather than expounding the Bible. The definitive version of the Mishnah was compiled orally by Rabbi Judah the Prince early in the third century, at which point it became a source of religious authority and a topic of study for subsequent generations of Jewish scholars.
NAHMANIDES, RABBI MOSES (1194–1270): Rabbi Moses ben Nahman, known also by his Hebrew acronym Ramban, lived in Gerona in Christian Catalonia. Although he was a fiercely independent thinker, he was also a religious conservative who defended established beliefs and institutions against new ideas. Following his participation in the disputation of Barcelona of 1263, he emigrated to the Holy Land in 1267.
Nahmanides contributed to many areas of Jewish thought and scholarship. His major works include: an incisive commentary on the Torah (including some Kabbalistic interpretations), analytical commentaries on the Talmud; and many volumes of responsa, sermons, and ethical works.
NASI: Hebrew: Prince; patriarch. The title given to the leader of the Jewish supreme court (Sanhedrin) and Israeli community during the Talmudic era. During the earlier part of the era the Nasi was expected to combine political and religious scholarly authority; though in the latter part it became more of a political office.
PIRKEI AVOT: Hebrew: The Chapters of the Fathers. A tractate in the Mishnah consisting of words of spiritual wisdom ascribed to early Jewish sages (“the fathers of the world”). This work enjoys great popularity, and in many communities it is customary to read chapters from it on Sabbath afternoons during the spring and summer.
PUSHKAH: Yiddish: a coin-box for charity.
RABBI [ENGLISH ADJECTIVES: RABBINIC, RABBINICAL]: Hebrew: “my master.” A title that came into use toward the end of the first century C. E. to designate an ordained authority on Jewish tradition, authorized to serve as a judge on a religious court and to issue rulings on matters of religious law and practice. In modern times and in liberal Jewish movements, the rabbi has taken on functions associated with clergy.
RASHI (1041–1105): Acronym for Rabbi Solomon ben [son of] Isaac; the foremost Jewish commentator on the Bible and Babylonian Talmud.
During his student years, Rashi studied with the leading Jewish scholars of Germany and France, but lived most of his life in Troyes, northern France, where he earned his living in the wine trade. Rashi’s commentaries on the Bible, especially on the Torah, present a variety of traditional and scholarly approaches, incorporating many interpretations from the Talmud and Midrashic works.
Rashi’s commentaries occupy a central place in traditional Jewish learning, providing the standard explanations through which Jews approach their authoritative religious texts.
RESPONSA: A branch of rabbinic literature beginning in the early medieval era, in which prominent rabbis were consulted on questions of religious law or Talmudic interpretation and their written answers were preserved in published collections. The responsa are an important source for tracing the interaction between authoritative texts and the changing historical or social realities.
SECOND COMMONWEALTH (ALSO KNOWN AS THE SECOND TEMPLE ERA): The era in Jewish history that extends from the return of the Jews from the Babylonian exile in the sixth century B.C.E. and the construction of the second Jerusalem Temple, through to the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in the year 70 C.E.
SEPHARAD [ENGLISH ADJECTIVE: SEPHARADIC]: A Biblical term referring to Spain, and used to designate the Jews of Spain and other Arabic-speaking or Muslim countries during the Middle Ages, or Jewish communities whose ancestors fled from Spain or Portugal after the expulsion in 1492.
SHABBAT: The Sabbath, the biblical day of rest, extending from Friday evening to Saturday night, in commemoration of God’s creation of the universe in six days, and the liberation of the Hebrews from Egyptian slavery. According to traditional Jewish practice, no creative labour (as defined by Jewish law) may be performed by Jews during this time, and many special prayers, customs, and rituals give the day its unique spiritual character.
SHAMMASH: Hebrew: Caretaker, usually of a synagogue.
SHOHET [PLURAL: SHOHETIM]: Ritual slaughterer.
SHNORRER: Yiddish: A beggar.
SHULHAN ARUKH: Hebrew: The arrayed table. An important codification of Jewish law compiled by Rabbi Joseph Caro (1488–1575), summarizing the practical legal decisions of the major rabbinic authorities until his time. Caro was a Sepharadi and made use primarily of Sepharadic authorities. A Polish scholar, Rabbi Moses Isserles of Cracow, composed a set of glosses incorporating the traditions and customs of Ashkenazic Jewry, thereby making the Shulhan Arukh usable by those communities. All editions of the Shulhan Arukh include both Caro’s original work and Isserles’ glosses.
With the religious fragmentation of Jewish life since the eighteenth century, the acceptance of the Shulhan Arukh’s authority has often been viewed as a defining criterion of orthodox traditionalism.
SIDDUR: Hebrew: “order.” The order of prayer; the Jewish prayer book.
SUKKAH: Hebrew: booth; tabernacle. A temporary structure in which Jews are required to dwell in observance of the biblical autumn holiday of Sukkot (Tabernacles; see Leviticus 23:42–43).
TABERNACLE: The mobile sanctuary built by the Israelites for use during their wanderings through the Sinai desert prior to their settlement in the promised land and the building of the Jerusalem Temple. See Exodus 26, etc.; cf. sukkah.
TALMUD: One of two monumental commentaries on the Mishnah collecting the opinions and debates of Jewish religious scholars from the third century and for several centuries afterward. Two Talmuds have come down to us: the “Jerusalem” or Palestinian Talmud, and the Babylonian. Though the two works are similar in their purpose and structure and contain much common material, it was the Babylonian Talmud that achieved prominence during the Middle Ages and is usually referred to as “the Talmud.”
The Talmuds are composed in a combination of Hebrew and Aramaic. They are distinguished by the intricate modes of logical argumentation that the rabbis apply to the interpretation of the Mishnah and to other topics. The opinions of the participating rabbis are subjected to critical scrutiny and logical analysis and are compared to proof-texts from the Bible and other statements by the rabbis.
Although they are organized principally as critical expositions of the religious law of the Mishnah, the Talmuds contain diverse types of material, including Biblical exegesis, homiletics, moralistic teachings, case law, legends about biblical figures and rabbis, and much more.
TANAKH: A modern term used to indicate the Hebrew Bible. It is an acronym for the Bible’s three main divisions: Torah; Nevi’im (Prophets); Ketuvim ([Sacred] Writings).
TEMPLE: The sanctuary in Jerusalem that was, according to biblical law, the only place where sacrificial worship might be conducted. The first Temple was built by King Solomon and was destroyed by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar. The second Temple was constructed by the exiles returning from the Babylonian captivity and destroyed by the Romans in 70 C.E.
T’FILLIN: Leather boxes containing handwritten passages from the Torah on parchment, which are strapped on the arm and head in fulfillment of the precept to bind God’s words “for a sign upon thine hand, and they shall be as frontlets between thine eyes” (Deuteronomy 6:8, etc.). In standard practice, they are worn by men during weekday morning prayers.
T’fillin is often translated incorrectly as “phylacteries,” a term that means “amulet” or “good luck charm.”
TORAH: Hebrew: “teaching” or “instruction.” Torah is applied most specifically to designate the first five books of the Hebrew Bible (also known as the Pentateuch or “Five Books of Moses”), which Jewish tradition regards as the most important and authoritative section of the Bible.
In a more general sense, the term is used to refer to the full range of Jewish religious teaching.
TOSAFOT: Hebrew: additions. A school of Talmud commentators in medieval France and Germany (twelfth to fourteenth centuries) known for their critical analyses of selected passages in the Talmud. The name “Tosafot” probably refers to their original function as supplements to Rashi’s commentary, since they often propose alternative interpretations to Rashi’s. Some of the founders of the school were Rashi’s own students and grandchildren.
The typical structure of a Tosafot passage begins with a presentation of Rashi’s explanation, then points out a contradiction or logical difficulty and attempts to resolve the problem through a new understanding of the passage and its issues. Tosafot are included in all the standard printed editions of the Talmud.
TOSEFTA: A collection of oral traditions organized in the same manner as the Mishnah, in the same six orders and almost all of the same tractates. The Aramaic name means “supplement,” and the purpose of the Tosefta was evidently to serve as a supplement to the study of the Mishnah by providing explanations, alternative traditions, and other relevant teachings of the early rabbis. The Tosefta was compiled about a generation after the Mishnah, i.e., in the early or middle third century C.E.
TZEDAKAH: Hebrew: justice; righteousness. Charity, support for the poor.
YARMULKE: Yiddish: skullcap. A head covering customarily worn by traditional Jewish males as a mark of reverence.
YESHIVAH: A school for advanced religious study, primarily of the Talmud and religious law. In ancient times the primary designation of yeshivah was a court (where religious traditions were debated in order to determine the law).
YOM KIPPUR: Hebrew: The Day of Atonement (see Leviticus 16). Celebrated on the tenth day of the Hebrew month of Tishri (September or October), this is the most solemn day of the Jewish festival calendar, the culmination of a penitential season, in which Jews beseech God for forgiveness of their sins. In ancient times, the focus of the day was on an elaborate sequence of sacrificial rituals conducted by the High Priest in the Jerusalem Temple, especially the symbolic transfer of the people’s sins to the “scapegoat” who is sent out to perish in the wilderness. After the destruction of the Temple, the unique character of the holiday was marked by solemn prayers in the synagogue and a twenty-four-hour fast.

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