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The Canadian Prairies and South America: VAD-24

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VAD-24
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table of contents
  1. Contents
  2. Introduction
  3. Part 1
  4. Drought and Vulnerability: A Conceptual Approach
  5. Part 2
  6. Canadian Prairies Drought from a Paleoclimate Perspective
  7. Future Possible Droughts
  8. Part 3
  9. The Impacts of the 2001–2 Drought in Rural Alberta and Saskatchewan, and Canada
  10. The “Min Till” Revolution and the Culture of Innovation
  11. The Troubled State of Irrigation in Southwestern Saskatchewan: The Effects of Climate Variability and Government Offloading on a Vulnerable Community
  12. Gendering Change: Canadian Farm Women Respond to Drought
  13. Part 4
  14. Drought and Public Policy in the Palliser Triangle: The Historical Perspective
  15. The Governance of Droughts
  16. Water Governance in the Prairie Provinces
  17. Part 5
  18. Values Analysis as a Decision Support Tool to Manage Vulnerability and Adaptation to Drought
  19. Bridging Knowledge Systems for Drought Preparedness: A Case Study from the Swift Current Creek Watershed (Canada)
  20. Part 6
  21. Drought Risks and Opportunities in the Chilean Grape and Wine Industry: A Case Study of the Maule Region
  22. Drought in the Oasis of Central Western Argentina
  23. Part 7
  24. Conclusion
  25. Index

INDEX

A

Acadia Valley Special Area, 191

adaptation, 25, 60, 74, 79, 103, 125

short-term adaptation strategies, 98

adaptation for climate change, 211, 267

adaptation planning, 54

adaptation planning and prioritization workshop, 292

adaptation to droughts, 6, 28, 97–101, 117–18

areas of further research, 102

drought adaptation and preparedness (Argentina), 339–42

knowledge gaps in, 80

policies in Canadian Prairies, 200–205

Adapting to Climate Change (Manitoba, 2015), 239

adaptive capacity, 4, 7, 15, 26–32, 40, 219, 259, 271

access to capital and, 319

determinants of, 4, 28, 199

FSPs designed to help, 205

government policies that assist, 200

linking to social and economic structures, 328

nested in larger institutional contexts, 30

subject to change, 32

unequally distributed, 31

water governance and, 217–18

wine industry to climate change, 304–5

adaptive capital, 154

adaptive culture, 126. See also innovation

adaptive governance, 181–96, 199–213, 217–41

adaptive institutional design principles, 219–21

Agri-Environmental Services Branch, 222

AgriCompetitiveness, 202

agricultural corporations, 164

agricultural drought, 17, 19–21, 40, 85, 334

agricultural policies and programs promoting growth, 172

agricultural producers, 31, 103, 150, 155, 265, 292, 338–40, 354, 356. See also dryland farmers; farmers

organic, 128–29

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 147, 153, 204, 284–85, 294, 355

Dominion Experimental Farms research, 263

Agriculture Drought Risk Management Plan for Alberta–2010, 205

AgriInnovation, 202

AgriInsurance, 201, 203

AgriInvest, 201–2

AgriMarketing, 202

AgriRecovery, 201

AgriStability, 201–2

dissatisfaction with delivery, 203

reduced payouts under, 356

Agromatic Atlas of Chile, 309

agronomists, 116, 319

air seeder technology, 122

Alberta, 8, 49, 59–60, 62, 66, 79, 98, 200

adaptive response to water scarcity, 257, 259

AgriStability program management, 203–4

autonomy and individualistic values, 257

average Prairie Ecozone PET, 63

carbon tax, 207

cattle industry, 163

century farms, 130

climate change strategy, 208, 238

drought (2001–2), 2, 6, 87–90, 103, 236, 257

environmental groups / agricultural producers consensus, 265

flooding, 211

history of water policy, 235

intervention during Dirty Thirties, 186–87

irrigation projects, 137–38, 148, 155

land tenure changes, 186

land-use frameworks, 238

and PFRA’s community pasture program, 194

purpose of water legislation, 223

settlers, 47

shared water resources, 236, 257, 259 (See also Alberta market model)

values-analysis case study, 254

Water for Life strategy, 207

watershed planning through local watershed groups, 238

wheat farming, 194

Alberta Climate Change and Emissions Management Act (2003), 207, 238

Alberta Dry Belt, 191

Alberta Environment and Parks, 222, 264

Alberta market model (to allocate and price water), 229, 232, 236

Alberta Water Act, 236

Alberta Water Council, 222

Alberta’s 2008 Climate Change Strategy, 207, 238

Alberta’s Special Areas Board. See Special Areas Board

Andes region, 303, 307, 311, 328–29, 334–35

climate predictions for the, 342

Antarctic Oscillation, 330

anthropocentrism, 255

anthropogenic climate change, 41, 72–73, 163

anthropogenic stressors, 251

aquifers, 339

Argentina, 2–4, 9–10, 185, 353, 355. See also Mendoza River basin

aridity index, 62

“assets” or “capitals” required to support resilience, 4, 28

Australian drought (2006), 85

autonomy, 255, 257. See also individual

B

Battle Creek, 49, 138, 142

Bears Paw Mountains, 49

beaver, 183

beef cattle. See cattle ranching

beneficial management practices (BMPs), 205

Bennett, R.B., 193–94

Berry Creek Special Area Board, 191

Big Bud Tractors of Havre, Montana, 121

biocentrism, 255

biophysical-agroeconomic models, 22

biophysical perspectives on drought, 82, 84, 89

bison, 183–84

Blood Tribe First Nation, 91, 96, 254, 269

communal/biocentric values and traditional indigenous knowledge, 263

sense of place and local identity, 260–62

Bolivia, 3

bottom-up knowledge, 32

bottom-up local governance, 357

bottom-up perspective, 15

boundary objects, 281, 286–87, 295

boundary organizations, 266–67

Bourgault Industries of St. Brieux, Saskatchewan, 122

bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) crisis, 144, 155, 161, 354

British Columbia, 60

business risk-management programs, 200, 202

C

Cabri (Riverside Rural Municipality), 91, 94–97, 101, 254

Canada-Alberta Farm Stewardship Programs (FSPs), 205

Canada-Saskatchewan Farm Stewardship Programs (FSPs), 205

Canada-Saskatchewan Pasture Recovery Initiative (2010), 144

Canada-US Boundary Waters Treaty, 222

Canada’s Tri-Council, 294

Canadian Climate Archive, 186

Canadian Co-operative Implements, 121

Canadian government. See federal government

Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), 137, 185

Canadian Prairies, 2, 4–6, 62, 72, 200–205. See also Palliser Triangle

drought from a paleoclimate perspective, 39–55, 79

droughts before settlement, 163

evolution of tillage practices on the, 113

extreme precipitation, 68

innovative farmers and machine-shop operators on, 117

population density, 183

postglacial climate history, 45

reduction in number of farms on, 110–11

risk of severe future droughts, 69, 353

settlement period, 116

similarities to Maule region in Chile, 303

wet period early twentieth century, 22–23

Canadian Regional Climate Model (CRCM), 62, 64, 66

canals, 307–8, 312

canola, 95, 109

capacity building, 236–37, 292

capital investment, 319, 322–23

capitalized farmers (Argentina), 339–40

cattle grazing, 24, 134

cattle ranching, 96, 183–85

century farms, 130

chemical and nutrient pollution, 110

chemical fallow, 108–9, 121, 123, 125

chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides, 109, 122

chemical-intensive agriculture, 125

childcare services, 168, 170

Chile (Maule region of Chile), 2–4, 9–10, 145, 253, 353, 355

case study, 303–23

institutional framework favours large producers, 356

neo-liberalism, 237, 356

scarcity of labour, 314

Water Code (1981), 237, 307

Chilean National Meteorological Institute, 309

chisel plows, 116–17

Chrétien, Jean, 155

chronological control, 44

citizen engagement, 264

civil society, 208

civil society organizations, 218, 222

climate change, 2, 22, 103, 159, 200, 210–13, 217, 219

adaptation policies (Prairie provinces), 207–9

anthropogenic, 41, 61, 72–73, 82, 163

challenges to viticulture, 304–6

failures to adapt, 351

infrastructure to adapt to, 211

long-term, 331

political support for action, 238–39

records of, 44

climate change scenarios, 309

climate change science, 28, 209

climate cycles, 41

climate disasters, 334

climate proxies, 43, 45, 72

climate sciences, 5–6

climate stresses, 31

climatology, 5

co-operatives, 321

collaboration, 264, 295

rural-urban divide as barrier to, 294

collaborative drought preparedness in Saskatchewan, 295

collective resources and capacities, 356

combine harvester, 117

“Coming Down the Mountain” project, 3

commodity prices, 6, 23, 85, 111, 164, 186, 203, 354

communal/biocentric values, 263, 265

communal choice, 257, 259

communal/place-based values, 263

community-based source water protection, 284

community-based vulnerability approach, 305

community-level research (drought 2001–2), 91–92

community pastures, 117, 150, 189–91, 194–95

community sustainability, 27

community wells, 204

comparative perspective, 2

comparative studies, 358

CONAMA, 331

conflict resolution, 253, 262

conflicts over water, 234, 236, 240, 269, 336, 339

conservancy ethics, 329

conservation districts (Manitoba), 223

conservation tillage. See min till

Consul irrigation project, 152

consultative process with stakeholders, 264

contextually based approaches, 15, 24, 26–27

continuous cropping practices, 108–9, 120, 122–23, 125

Cordillera, 38, 334, 343

corn, 153

Coronach (Hart Butte RM), 92, 97

cost-price squeeze, 164, 354

“creeping” hazards, 17

critical action research, 285

crop diversification in the Palliser Triangle, 109

crop farming, water usage, 24

crop insurance, 201, 211, 219, 256, 320

changing climate and, 166

Crop insurance Corporation (Saskatchewan), 206

crop losses, 94–95

crop rotation, 109, 125

Crow Rate, 356

Crown, water owned by, 227–28

Crown land, 189

Crown leases, 191

Cypress Hills, 49, 72, 281

flooding (2010), 147

streams originating in, 138

Cypress Lake Reservoir, 141–42, 152

D

dams or weirs to retain water, 152, 194–95, 211

debt levels, 173, 292, 357

from farm expansion, 166

vulnerability caused by high levels, 172

debt rescheduling, 188

demonstration farms, 194

depopulation. See population displacement from agricultural regions

Depression. See Dirty Thirties; Great Depression

deregulatory policy changes, 164

desertification, 17, 342

determinants of adaptive capacity, 4, 28, 199

direct seeding, 108, 121, 127

Dirty Thirties, 47, 181, 186, 193

disaster assistance. See government disaster programs

diverse knowledge to navigate uncertainty, 280–81

Dominion Experimental Farms, 116, 263

Dominion Lands Act, 185

double exposures, 31, 337, 354–55

Douglas fir, 49

drinking water, 199, 222, 234, 282, 340

drought, 1, 25–32, 310, 312, 320, 327, 334

adaptation (See adaptation to droughts)

agricultural (See agricultural drought)

biophysical perspectives on, 82, 84, 89

coast-to-coast droughts in Canada, 60

definitions, 17, 21, 24, 39–40, 145, 205, 279, 334

different production models and, 145, 167

economic and social impacts, 82

future (See future droughts)

governance framework surrounding, 218

government policy in relation to, 199

hazards perspective on, 24–25

impact approach to studying, 83–84

impact on workloads, 167

meteorological, 17, 19, 40, 96, 334

more costly than other forms of natural disaster, 80

most severe before the Prairies were settled, 53

natural characteristic of Canadian Prairies, 59, 79, 82, 252

new farming practices designed to reduce exposure to, 6, 107–8 (See also min till)

overlap with economic and social crises, 6, 337

paleodrought, 42–43, 55

perceptions of, 22–23

second-order impacts of, 84, 89

self-sustaining, 17

socio-economic, 15, 19, 21–22, 40

sustained drought (1840–60s), 53

drought (1886), 113

drought (1890s), 60, 80

drought (1910s), 60, 80

drought (1920s), 47, 116, 204, 263, 266, 269

drought (1930s), 47, 60, 80, 116, 186, 204, 263, 266, 269, 281, 354

Canadian federal response to, 136

drought (1960s), 281

drought (1961), 117–18

drought (1966–70), 334–35

drought (1980s), 60, 80, 123, 281

interest in increasing drought resilience following, 124

made innovation desirable, 112

drought (1999–2005), 80, 82, 102

drought (2000–2004), 60

drought (2000s), 281

drought (2001–2), 2, 6, 79–103, 236, 252, 257, 260, 353

water sharing, 357

drought (2008–10), 60

drought indices, 43

drought planning exercises, 206

drought preparedness, 25, 279, 284, 294

Mendoza River basin, 10, 337

drought preparedness planning, 285

drought proxies, 41–44

drought resilience. See resilience

“Drought Risk Management Plan for Saskatchewan” (draft, 2002), 206

Drought Watch website, 204

Dry Belt, 182, 188

Dry Belt wheat farming

drought (1917-1927), 186

dryland agriculture, 109, 113, 139

dryland farmers, 21, 107–8, 110, 112, 128, 135–36, 144–45, 193

adopting new farming practices and machinery, 107–8

dryland farming, 40, 118, 130, 148, 265

dryland hay production, 134, 140, 147

dual accountability, 267

Dublin Principles, 264

duck-foot cultivators, 116–17

dugouts, 195, 200, 205, 211, 287

dry dugouts, 88, 90

Duncairn Dam, 282

Dust Bowl, 267

dust storms, 109, 193

E

Eastend Reservoir on the Frenchman River, 142

economic and social stressors, 337

economic assets, 29

economic capital, 337, 354–55. See also capital investment

economic or market instruments used in Alberta. See Alberta market model

economies of scale, 120, 164

education (literacy rates), 314, 323

Energy and Climate Change Plan (2007), 207

Environment Canada, 222, 355

environmental change, 43–44

environmental cleanup, 144, 147, 153

environmental groups, 254, 265

environmental sustainability, 265

equity, 237–38, 358

inequalities, 160

in relation to water governance instruments, 237–38

social equity, 312, 321

wealth redistribution, 256

eutrophication (nutrient pollution) in prairie lakes, 129

evapotranspiration, 21, 42

exposure sensitivities, 305–6

extreme climate events, 163, 185, 292

extreme events characterizations, 285

extreme precipitation, 68

extreme rainfall events, 5

extreme weather, 351

Ezee-On Manufacturing of Vegreville, Alberta, 122

F

farm equipment

chisel plows, 116

combine harvester, 117

duck-foot cultivators, 116

large, articulated four-wheel drive tractors, 121

local farm equipment manufacturing, 118–24

locally designed innovative tillage implements, 117, 124

moldboard plows, 116

new farm-machinery sales, 95

Noble blade, 117

on-farm modification of existing machinery, 119

one-way disc plow, 117

peg and disc harrows, 116

Prairie equipment manufacturers, 122

rod weeder, 117

specialized farming equipment for min till, 108

tillage and seeding machinery that combined two or more functions, 120–21

farm expansion, 164, 166, 173, 191–92, 357. See also debt levels

farm income-stabilizations policies. See income-stabilization policies

Farm Progress Show, 127

Farm Stress Line, 172

farm support programs

elimination of, 164

farm women, 357

adaptive strategies, 162, 171

caregivers and nurturers, 168–69, 171

contributions to agriculture marginalized, 167

experiences of BSE crisis, 161

food preparation, childcare, and healthcare, 160–61

hauling water (workload increased), 167, 170

“helper” identity, 161, 167

isolation due to gender roles, 162

less agency over concrete adaptation strategies, 161, 171

pressure to support others (stress of), 170

social networks, 170

temporary work or self-employment, 171

farmer-agronomist collaboration, 116

farmer innovators, 130. See also innovation

farmer-inventors and repair shop operators, 120

farmer-operated soil conservation associations, 124

farmers, 111. See also agricultural producers

beneficial land and water management practices, 265–66

capitalized farmers (Argentina), 339–40

“main farmer,” 161, 167–69

vulnerable to psychological consequences of drought, 169, 171

federal government

absence from water policy field, 134–35, 233–35, 240–41, 355

absent in long-term proactive planning, 210, 213

Canadian climate change policy, 211

declining support for Prairie agriculture, 9, 150, 195

establishment of cattle industry in Palliser Triangle, 184

on grain farming in Palliser Triangle, 194

greenhouse gas reduction plans, 211

intervention in Great Depression, 136, 187

irrigation, 134–35, 148, 155, 289

Justin Trudeau government, 209

loss of significant historical programs, 356

neo-liberalizing economy and restructuring agricultural sector, 9

rural water programs, 204

subsidized homestead settlement, 185

federal-provincial agricultural programming, 203–4

federal-provincial drought relief program, 144, 189

Federal Water Policy (1987), 233

fertilizer and seed in a single operation, 122

fertilizer sales, 95

financial institutions, 95

financial management, 98, 292

First Nation reserves, 91

Blood Tribe First Nation, 91, 96, 254, 260–63, 269

stakeholders with vested interest in water, 254

First Nations, 264

fish populations, 287

Flexi-Coil of Saskatoon, 122, 127

flood damaged irrigation works (Cypress Hills, 2010), 147

flood irrigation projects, 138, 146, 307

floods, 200

focus group discussions, 287

formal institutions, 199

free market principles, 256

free trade, 355

freedom of choice, 256

Frenchman River, 49

Friggstad, Olaf, 121, 127, 130

fruit growing (Chile), 306–7

FRWIP, 203, 210–11

FSPs, 205, 210–11

future droughts, 5, 60–61, 82, 163

Canadian Prairie agricultural region, 62–71

greater adaptive capacity will be required, 54, 74

intensification in 21st century, 69

long-term droughts projected to increase, 66

more frequent and severe drought, 9, 27–28, 40, 200, 209, 352

multi-year droughts forecast, 65–66, 68

prolonged and severe droughts, 162

risk of severe, 69

G

gender and drought, 159–73. See also farm women

gender vulnerabilities to climate, 7

gendered division of labour, 160–61

global climate models (GCMs), 62–64

global environmental change, 8. See also climate change

global warming, 54, 73

glyphosate herbicides, 124

goat breeders, 335, 337, 339

Govenlock irrigation project, 152

governance, 7, 30, 199–200, 218

government agency management model, 228–29

government disaster programs, 172–73

government programs in times of environmental crisis, 166

grain, open market for, 303

grain brokers, 95

grain farming, 194

grape growing (Mendoza), 335

Gravelbourg (Gravelbourg RM), 92, 95, 97

Gray, J.H., Men Against the Desert, 263

Great Depression, 117, 136, 162, 181, 187, 193

Great Plains of North America, 44, 48–49

greenhouse gas climate of the 21st century, 54

greenhouse gas emissions, 200

greenhouse gas reduction plan (Alberta), 207

grey water, 101

ground and surface water supplies, 88

over-allocation, 20

groundwater springs, 281

groundwater wells, 313

group values, 251

Growing Forward, 200, 202, 210

Growing Forward 2, 200, 202

Guide to Farm Practice in Saskatchewan (1987), 123

H

Hanna (Special Area No. 2), 91, 254

Harper, Stephen, 155

on carbon pricing or a carbon tax, 209

emissions targets, 208

hazards perspective on drought, 24–25

health effects from drought, 82, 86

herbicides, 122, 124

historical (archival) records, 46–48

hoe drill, 121

holistic approach to water planning, 211, 268–69

homestead settlement, 185

horticulture (Argentina), 335, 337

Hudson’s Bay Company Archives in Winnipeg, 46–47

human capital, 6, 30, 74, 112–13, 130, 337

human-induced climate change, 61, 82

human-induced drought, 22

hunting and gathering, 183

hydraulic society, 336, 339

hydro-climate variability assessments, 285

hydro-electric power, 91

hydro-illogical cycle, 25

hydrological drought, 15, 19–21, 40, 52, 96, 334

streamflow as best index, 48

I

impact approach to studying drought, 83–84

income-stabilization policies, 209

income-stabilization programs, 200

Indigenous famine, 184. See also First Nation reserves

Indigenous inhabitants of Palliser Triangle

water management strategy, 183

individual, 269

individual, group and institutional values

interconnectedness, 263

individual freedom, 255

individual (single farm) irrigation systems, 137

informal institutions, 199, 218

informal social networks, 356

innovation, 116–19, 122, 125, 127–28, 202

as a cultural value, 111–13

flexibility and adaptability, 130

importance to survival in Prairie agriculture, 127

institutionalized social value, 108

mechanically adept farmers, 119

organic producers as innovators, 129

reducing vulnerability through, 113

innovation theory, 111

innovative technologies, 6, 339–40

Institutional Adaptation to Climate Change (IACC), 3, 80, 91, 94, 96, 101, 136, 236, 253, 264, 267

institutional capital, 7, 30, 135, 337, 355

institutional framework, 8

institutional memory, 234–35

institutional values, 252

institutions, 217

institutions as determinants, 199

institutions of civil society, 7

instrument models

government agency management, 228

market (water as private property), 228, 232

user-based management, 228

insurance coverage, 172

insurance services, 30, 166

Integrated Surface Drought Index, 21

“integrated water resource management” (IWRM), 264

integrative knowledge, 267

intense rainfall events (or extreme participation), 68, 154

interaction approach, 83

interdisciplinary approach, 8–9, 15–16, 351

interdisciplinary planning approaches, 264

interdisciplinary research, 21

intergenerational learning, 126, 130

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 26–28, 68–69, 113, 160, 217, 269

international commodity markets, 292

International Development Research Centre, 294

International Institute for Sustainable Development, 208

International Joint Commission, 222

interprovincial conflicts over water, 234, 240

interviews in Maule Chile study, 308

invasive species programs, 294

inventiveness. See innovation

irrigated agriculture in Mendoza region

automatic irrigation systems, 340

intensive and diversified, 329

irrigation, 6, 21, 23, 96, 133, 194–95, 352

drip systems, 307

drought resilience through, 134

dryland hay production and, 134

government-managed irrigation projects, 135–36

multiple-user irrigation projects, 137–38

non-existent or limited access to, 31, 329

producer reliance on government support for, 136

Southwest Saskatchewan, 10, 134–38, 289, 353

irrigation agriculture, 145

irrigation (Chile), 307

water shortages, 311

irrigation technology, 322

irrigators

increasing vulnerability, 154

inequity between capitalized and others, 358

irrigators trying to develop innovative response

“Catch-22” scenarios, 152

prevented by government, 147–48

island forests, 43, 48

J

Jones, David, 188

K

Kainai Blood Indian Reserve (KBIR), 91, 96, 254, 260–63, 269

“Killer Winter of 1906–7,” 185

Kindersley (Kindersley RM), 92, 95, 97, 101

knowledge-bridging processes, 281, 286, 292, 295, 357

Kyoto Protocol, 208, 212

L

labour-saving technology, 120

Lake Athabasca, 45

Lake Diefenbaker, 97, 139–40, 148

lake sediments, 45, 72

laminated sediments, 43–44

land claims and associated survey systems, 23

land management practices, 107

land tenure changes, 186

land-use change, 44

land-use frameworks, 208

land-use policy, 24

leases (21-year leases), 184–85

Lethbridge area irrigation projects, 194

Little Ice Age, 45, 183

“lived experience” of drought, 26

livestock industry, 204. See also cattle grazing

local farm equipment manufacturing, 118–24

local institutional capital, 30

local knowledge and experience, 113, 269

local newspapers, advertising in, 95

local watershed committees, 240, 264

source water protection planning by, 229

local watershed stewardship organizations

key role in preparing for drought, 295

locally designed innovative tillage implements, 117, 124

lodgepole pine, 49

long-term adaptation strategies, 98

long-term drought strategies, 209

long-term programming, 289

Long Term Safe Drinking Water Strategy, 282

Lontué River, 307

low taxes, 155

M

machine technology, 107

MacKay, Angus, 116

MacKinnon family, 138

Maidstone (Eldon RM), 92, 95, 97, 101

“main farmer,” 161, 167

vulnerability related to, 168

women as, 169

management instruments, 235–36

Manitoba, 59, 66, 79, 161, 194

century farms, 130

climate change strategy, 208, 239

drought (2001–2), 88

flood protection plans, 239

government agency management model, 229

Great Depression, 187

history of water policy, 235

water legislation, 223

watershed management plans, 239

Manitoba Water Protection Act, 223

Manitoba Water Stewardship Division, 222

Maple Creek flood (2010), 154

Maple Creek irrigation project, 147

Maple Creek (Maple Creek RM), 92, 95, 97

maps, 286–87

market, 255

private-sector marketing system, 303

market and economic values (in values analysis), 256

market-based instruments, 240

market-based management model, 229

market conditions, 31, 314

market-garden operations, 95

market instrument (tradable water interest), 234–36

Marquis Wheat, 116

Martin, Paul, 155

masculinity, stoic and independent form of, 169

Master Agreement of Apportionment (Canada, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba), 234

Maule River, 307

Medicine Hat Times, 47

Medieval Climate Anomaly, 72

Men Against the Desert (Gray), 263

Mendoza (city), 335

Mendoza River, 336

Mendoza River basin, 10, 22, 31, 327–43

agriculture integrated with industrial sector, 335

dependency on water resources, 336

“dry pampas,” 329

gap between agribusiness and subsistence producers, 338

institutional framework favours large producers, 356

irrigation, 145, 329–30, 335–36, 338

marginal agriculture with limited access to irrigation, 329

small-scale producers, 338–39

vulnerability to climate variability, 330

vulnerability to drought, 335–38

meteorological drought, 17, 19, 40, 96, 334

min till, 23, 28, 107–30, 352. See also zero till

adoption on the Canadian Prairies, 111–12, 128

criticism, 110

environmental problems from, 128–29

innovations by local farmer and machinery manufacturers, 135

product of an adaptive culture, 125–28

min till (1990s), 124–25

min till vs. organic debate, 128–29

minimal government, 155

moisture deficit, 61

moisture loss, 116

moisture retention, 123

moldboard plows, 116

Monk, Sheri, 151

moral economy, 259–60, 263, 267–69, 271

Morris, George, 130

multi-generational survival of farming units, 130

multi-year droughts forecast, 65–66, 68

multi-year droughts on the Prairies, 80, 82

multiple-user irrigation projects, 137–38

municipal drinking water. See drinking water

N

National Water Supply Expansion Program (2000–2009), 204

natural and social scientific views, 328

natural and social systems, 343

natural capital, 29, 74, 337, 352

Natural Resource Transfer Agreement (1930), 190

Natural Resources Canada, 268, 355

natural stressors, 251

neo-liberal Water Code, 237–38

neo-liberalism, 9, 24, 155, 356, 358

Neutral Hills Special Area, 191

New Democratic Party governments in Saskatchewan, 155

new farm-machinery sales, 95

“new viticulture,” 340–41

La Niña episodes, 330

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), 52, 54, 330, 342

Noble, Charles, 130

Noble blade, 117

non-agricultural sectors, 90, 103

drought effects, 86

non-climatic controls, 44

non-climatic stressors, 31

non-profit organizations, 218

North American Drought Atlas, 42

North Saskatchewan River watershed, 206

NVivo software, 254

O

oases (“green oases”), 327, 330, 332, 335, 338

ocean-atmosphere circulation anomalies, 73

off-farm work, 162, 169, 171, 340, 355

offloading of responsibilities (irrigation) onto provincial governments and producers, 150, 155

oil and gas industry

increased water costs, 95

Okanagan grape industry, 23

one-way disc plow, 117

Ontario, 187

open-range cattle ranching, 183, 185

organic producers, 128–29

“Our True Immigration Policy,” 47

Outlook (Rudy RM), 91, 94–95, 97, 101, 139, 254

P

Pacific Climate Episode (AD 1250–1550). See Little Ice Age

Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), 52, 54, 330–31

paleo record frequency, 67–68

paleoclimate, 41

paleoclimate of the Canadian Prairies, 72–73, 79

paleoclimatic context, 40

paleoclimatic research, 5, 154, 353

paleodrought, 42–43, 55

paleoecology of the Peace-Athabasca Delta, 72

paleohydrology in the dry core of the northern Great Plains, 49

paleolimnology of Humboldt Lake, Saskatchewan, 72

Palliser, John, 47, 182

Palliser Triangle, 23, 92, 98, 182. See also Canadian Prairies

adoption of innovations, 112

agricultural practices adapted for, 113, 116

crop diversification, 109

Dirty Thirties, 193

drought (2001–2), 109–10

history of drought in, 183–87

history of drought mitigation practices, 109

innovative practices by dryland farmers, 108

irrigation, 133

more intense droughts possible, 154

organic producers, 129

reduction in number of farmers, 120

southwest Saskatchewan, 134, 141, 150–51, 154–55

wheat boom, 185

Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI), 21, 42, 61, 66–67, 80, 82, 328

PAR approach to bridge knowledge systems, 285–86

participatory action research. See PAR

participatory mapping, 253, 287, 295

participatory planning with a diversity of stakeholders, 296

participatory scenario process, 289

participatory vulnerability assessment, 286

“pathways of double exposures,” 4

Peace-Athabasca Delta (PAD), 45

peg and disc harrows, 116

Peigan, 262, 265–66

Penman-Monteith method, 62

people-centred focus, 32

perceptions of drought, 22–23

permanent wetlands in the Prairie Ecozone, 43

pipelines (water), 200, 204, 211, 222, 289

place, 255

place-based agricultural research, 263–64

place-based interests, 268–69

place-based values, 260–62

pneumatic seed delivery, 122

policy aimed at both flood and drought, 211

policy interventions, 8, 187, 191

political processes, 31

political support for climate change action, 238–39

ponderosa pine, 49

population displacement from agricultural regions, 120, 187, 189, 191, 194, 259, 352, 357

free transportation, 188

south Saskatchewan, 111

post-war decades

economies of scale, 120

growth in chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides, 122

innovations such as the combine harvester, 117

potential evapotranspiration (PET), 62

for Prairie Ecozone, 63

Potrerillos Dam, 339

pragmatism, 260

Prairie Adaptation Research Collaborative (PARC), 285–86, 294

Prairie equipment manufacturers, 122

Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration (PFRA), 7, 107, 116, 148, 152, 188, 193–95, 204, 222, 263–64

abandonment of irrigation responsibilities, 136, 143–44, 146, 150

as boundary organization, 266

community pastures, 117

counterproductive dependency on, 151

dismantled by federal government, 147, 155, 173, 195–96, 355

irrigation and dam projects, 116, 136, 138, 194

projects in southwestern Saskatchewan, 138–40, 143

Prairie paleodrought

historical (archival) records, 46–48

lake and terrestrial sediments, 45–46

studies of sediments, archival documents, and tree rings, 45

tree rings, 47–48

Prairie Provinces Water Board, 222

precautionary principle, 208

precipitation, timing of, 21

PRECIS (Providing Regional Climates for Impacts Studies), 309

preparedness planning (drought preparedness), 9, 279–80

need for long-term studies, 342–43

privatization of water, 358

proactive adaptation (drought preparedness), 279–80

property rights associated with water, 226–27, 229

provincial and federal water managers

treaty obligations with US, 143

provincial structures of water governance, 229

proxy, 41, 43

public (Crown) land, 189

public engagement, 253

public ownership, 256

public ownership under control of the Special Areas board, 191

pulse crops, 109, 125

Q

quantitative analyses, 25

quantitative expressions of drought, 42

Quebec, 187

R

railway companies, 188

Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), 137, 185

reactive adaptation strategies, 280

reconstruction of environmental history, 41

recreation, 282

Red Deer River, 189

Regina water conservation programs, 206

regional climate models (RCMs), 62

Reid Lake Reservoir, 282

research and development, 202

residential school experience, 260

resilience, 3, 5, 134, 271, 352

based on experience with past droughts, 27

farmers in areas normally exposed to droughts, 23

women, 7

resilience-enhancing infrastructure, 155

resilience of a community, 4, 7, 15

resolution, 44

Richardson family, 138

rising input costs, 6

risk and vulnerability studies, 328

risk management approach to drought, 24, 200, 202

risk of drought (changing), 61

Riverside. See Cabri (Riverside Rural Municipality)

Rocky Mountains, 20, 48, 137, 145, 194

rod weeder, 117

Rolling Hills irrigation projects, 195

Rosenheim Special Area, 191

rural communities

agricultural drought and, 85

drought (2001–2), 103

Rural Communities Adaptation to Drought (RCAD), 3, 80, 91, 95–96, 109–11, 117, 119, 121, 123–24, 127–28, 136

Rural Municipality of Reno, 155

rural people’s vulnerability to climate in arid areas, 2

rural relief, 144, 189

encouraged farmers to stay on the land, 193

farm families still abandoned farms, 194

rural-urban divide as barrier to collaboration, 294

Rural Water Development Program, 204

S

salt cedar monitoring, 294

sand dune deposits, 46

sand dunes, 44

Saskatchewan, 3, 8, 44, 46, 49, 59–60, 62, 66, 79, 98, 200

agricultural production, 162

AgriStability program management, 203–4

average Prairie Ecozone PET, 63

century farms, 130

childcare services, 168

drought (2001–2), 2, 6, 87–91, 103

environmental groups / agricultural groups opposing views, 265

gender and drought (study), 159–73

government agency management model, 229

Great Depression, 186–87

history of water policy, 235

intergovernmental drought monitoring committee, 206

irrigation, 6, 138, 148–49, 155

need for a drought plan, 207

organic producers, 129

Palliser Triangle could be reclaimed for grain farming, 194

RCAD studies, 92

reduction in number of farms on, 111

relief funding, 193

settlers, 47

values-analysis case study, 254

wheat price, 85

Saskatchewan AgriVision Corporation, 149

Saskatchewan Department of Agriculture, 206

Saskatchewan Farm and Ranch Water Infrastructure Program (FRWIP), 204, 210–11

Saskatchewan Irrigation Projects Association (SIPA), 149

Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture, 284–85

Saskatchewan Ministry of Environment, 206

Saskatchewan Ministry of Municipal Relations, 285

Saskatchewan New Democratic Party Government

Energy and Climate Change Plan (2007), 207, 238

Saskatchewan Party government, 204

Saskatchewan Power Corporation, 91

Saskatchewan Research Council (SRC), 285–86, 292

Saskatchewan River, 189

Saskatchewan Water Security Agency, 150, 282

Saskatchewan Watershed Advisory Committee, 222

Saskatchewan Watershed Authority (SWA), 143, 147, 264, 282, 284–85, 294

Saskatoon, 80

scenario assessments, 295

scenarios, 286

scenarios (participatory scenarios), 287

sediments, 43–45, 72

seedbed preparation, 116

semi-arid Prairie Ecozone, 48

sensitivity, 10, 15, 21, 43, 287, 294, 309–10, 327, 339

sensitivity/adaptive capacity, 4, 15, 25–28, 40, 305, 308, 337

settlement period, 116

settlers, 47

Shaunavon (Grassy Creek RM and Arlington RM), 92, 281

silviculture, 307

SIMPROC modelling, 306, 309–10, 316, 321–22

small-scale operations, 172, 256, 339–40, 355

snow-cover seasons, 69

snowmelt runoff, 281, 303, 307, 329–32

snowpack deficits, 39, 142–43

snowpack in the mountains, 9

social, economic, and political context, 21

social and economic conditions, 9

social and natural scientific perspectives, 3

social capital, 30, 259–60, 263, 267–69, 271, 337, 356–57

social dimensions of climate events, 160

social-ecological systems, 279–81

social economy, 260

social equity, 312, 321

social regulation, 256

social reproduction tasks, 161

social responsibility/community, 255

social systems, 3–4

effects of drought on, 6, 86

social vulnerability, 26, 351

society, 255

society and communal values (in value analysis), 257–60

socio-economic conditions, 15

socio-economic considerations of drought, 23–24, 27

socio-economic droughts, 15, 19, 21–22, 40

socio-economic-political perspectives on droughts, 82

soil conservation, 109, 287, 289

planting grass in blown-out areas, 194

soil erosion, 205. See also wind erosion

soil management, 117

soil moisture depletion, 39

solar radiation levels, 64

Sounding Creek Special Area, 191

source water protection planning, 223, 229

South Saskatchewan River, 138, 281

South Saskatchewan River basin (SSRB), 20, 228–29, 252

South Saskatchewan River basin (SSRB) stakeholders, 253–54

South Saskatchewan River Dam project, 139

Southwest Enterprise Region, 285

southwest Saskatchewan

availability of water for irrigation (1979-2009), 141

cattle ranching, 134

concern over potential loss of access to irrigation, 150

decline in number of farmers and viable communities, 151, 155

planning for future irrigation in, 154

three-decade period of low water supply, 141

soybeans, 153

Special Areas Administration, 187–92

Special Areas Board (Alberta), 7, 107, 191, 194–96, 355

institutional adaptation to drought, 24

Special Areas in Alberta, 94

Acadia Valley Special Area, 191

Berry Creek Special Area Board, 191

Hanna (Special Area No.2), 91

Neutral Hills Special Area, 191

Rosenheim Special Area, 191

Sounding Creek Special Area, 191

Special Area No. 1, 189

Sullivan Lake Special Area, 191

St. Mary’s River, 236

stakeholder analysis, 252–54

stakeholder needs, 20–21

stakeholder participation, 24, 286

stakeholder values as identified by IACC research, 262–67

stakeholder vulnerability to drought, 252

stakeholders, power differentials among, 268

stakeholders and governments, 270

Standardized Precipitation-Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), 42, 61

Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), 20, 42, 61, 66–67

Statistics Canada, 168

Steiger Tractor of Fargo, North Dakota, 121

Stewart Valley (Saskatchewan Landing RM), 91, 94–95, 254, 281

straw spreading, 109

streamflow, 48–49, 53, 88

stress, 169–70

from climate extremes, 167

from lack of control over major farm decisions, 161

mental health and psychological stress, 172

mental health support systems lacking, 172

reducing adaptive capacity of producers, 354

strip farming, 116

sugar beets, 153

Sullivan Lake Special Area, 191

summer fallow, 108, 116, 118, 123, 193

surface water, 338

Surface Water Supply Index, 20

susbsistence food production, 162

sustainable resource management practices, 208

Sweet Grass Hills, 49

Swift Current, 281–82

Swift Current Creek, 41, 49, 52–53

Swift Current Creek watershed

lack of long-term secure funding, 296

recurring severe droughts, 281

Swift Current Creek watershed (case study), 279–96

Swift Current Creek Watershed Protection Plan, 285

Swift Current Creek Watershed Stewards (SCCWS), 282, 284–85, 294

Swift Current federal research station, 123

T

Taber (Taber Municipal District), 91, 94–97, 254

technological and infrastructure development (need for investing in), 256

technological and mechanical proficiency (farmers), 130

technological innovations, 6, 111, 339–40. See also innovation

technology, 29, 107, 337

irrigation technology, 322

labour-saving, 120

technology/research, 98

temperature, 69, 313, 322, 330, 332

Teno River, 307

Thornthwaite method, 62

Tilley East area, 189

Tilley East Area Board, 190

time-path study of changes in adaptive capacity, 358

time-series analyses, 62

timeline exercises, 287

timelines, 286, 295

top-down regulatory approach, 264, 267

tourism, 329

tradable water interests, 232, 234–35

traditional indigenous knowledge, 263

Treaty 6 (1876), 184

Treaty 7 (1877), 184

tree nurseries, 150

tree-ring chronologies, 42–43, 46

Tree-Ring Lab at the University of Regina, 48

tree-ring reconstruction of hydrological drought, 48–53

tree rings, 44–45, 47–48, 328

effective proxy of annual streamflow, 49, 53

treed shelter belts, 116

Trudeau, Justin, 209

trust, 257–58, 260

in market instrument (tradable water interest), 235–36

stakeholders for governments, 270

25 Year Saskatchewan Water Security Plan, 207, 223, 238–39, 264

U

UK Hadley climate model (HadCM3), 66

under-capitalized producers in Chilean agriculture, 340

“unfair economic practices,” 259

United Farmers of Alberta (UFA), 188

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 208

United States, 53

upgrading water supply systems after a drought, 95

Upper Souris Watershed Plan, 206

upstream withdrawal from river systems, 20

urban sprawl, 336

user-based management, 228–29, 240–41

V

values, 251

values analysis, 9, 252–56, 269, 271

boundary organizations in, 266–67

water as focal point, 254

values mapping, 262

values of freedom of choice/action and individual autonomy, 257

vapour pressure levels, 64

variability in access to water resources, 353

varves, 44

Versatile Manufacturing of Winnipeg, Manitoba, 121

Vidora irrigation project, 152

viniculture, 307, 322

viticulture sector (Argentina), 329, 337

drought, 332

viticulture sector (Chile), 304, 307, 322

need for irrigation, 304

vulnerability, 3, 15, 25–26, 154, 280, 292, 312, 328

definition, 4, 27–28

for different types of agricultural producers, 31

function of natural conditions and ability of systems to adapt, 25

integral part of human experience in the Palliser Triangle, 183

related to stage of career (agricultural producers), 292

socially constructed concept, 8, 251

subject to change, 31–32

Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Extremes in the Americas (VACEA) project, 3, 294

vulnerability approach, 3

vulnerability assessments, 305–6

vulnerability perspective, 352

vulnerability reduction, 8–9

W

water allocation, 20, 150, 153, 223

FITFER (first-in-time, first-in-right), 257

Master Agreement of Apportionment (Canada, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba), 234

southwest Saskatchewan, 146–47

water allocations for environmental protection, 268

water as a community resource, 268

water as privately owned, 227–28, 358

water as publicly owned, 223, 227

water conflicts, 234, 236, 240, 269, 336, 339

water conservation programs, 30, 96–97, 101

water for agricultural production, 282

Water for Life initiative (Alberta), 235, 238, 264

water governance, 8, 218

to achieve adaptive capacity, 219

Canada, 24

Chile, 24

institutional structure of, 222–26

water governance and adaptive capacity, 217–18

“Water Governance and Climate Change,” 3

water governance instruments

equity in relation to, 237–38

water hoarding, 312, 321

water infrastructure programs, 222

water instruments, 226–29

water law, 218

water management in Canada

shared jurisdiction, 222, 233

water owned by the Crown, 227–28

water pipelines, 200, 204, 211, 222, 289

water quality, 223

water rationing, 97

Water Resources Act (Manitoba), 239

water-retention facilities, 222

Water Security Agency (Saskatchewan), 206, 222

water-sharing and water-market relationship (2001–2 drought), 260

water sharing by irrigators and communities, 236, 357

water storage communities, 211

water stresses, 31

watershed associations, 222

local watershed committees, 229, 240, 264

local watershed stewardship organizations, 295

watershed organizations

modern-day boundary organizations, 267

stakeholders with vested interest in water, 254

watershed planning efforts, 268

watershed planning through local watershed groups, 206–8

wealth redistribution, 256

wells, 313, 338

wheat, 23, 95, 185, 187, 191

Wheat Board, 155, 356

white spruce, 49

“wicked problems,” 8

“wickedness” of droughts, 16–17, 32

wind erosion, 88, 116–17, 193. See also soil erosion

wine industry (Chile), 304

access to capital, 319, 323

drought-related vulnerabilities, 304, 314–20

World Economic Forum, 351

World War I

wheat boom, 185

World War II

limits on steel during, 117

Z

zero till, 108. See also min till

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Vulnerability and Adaptation to Drought
© 2016 Harry Diaz, Margot Hurlbert, and Jim Warren
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