INDEX
A
Acadia Valley Special Area, 191
adaptation, 25, 60, 74, 79, 103, 125
short-term adaptation strategies, 98
adaptation for climate change, 211, 267
adaptation planning, 54
adaptation planning and prioritization workshop, 292
adaptation to droughts, 6, 28, 97–101, 117–18
areas of further research, 102
drought adaptation and preparedness (Argentina), 339–42
knowledge gaps in, 80
policies in Canadian Prairies, 200–205
Adapting to Climate Change (Manitoba, 2015), 239
adaptive capacity, 4, 7, 15, 26–32, 40, 219, 259, 271
access to capital and, 319
determinants of, 4, 28, 199
FSPs designed to help, 205
government policies that assist, 200
linking to social and economic structures, 328
nested in larger institutional contexts, 30
subject to change, 32
unequally distributed, 31
water governance and, 217–18
wine industry to climate change, 304–5
adaptive capital, 154
adaptive culture, 126. See also innovation
adaptive governance, 181–96, 199–213, 217–41
adaptive institutional design principles, 219–21
Agri-Environmental Services Branch, 222
AgriCompetitiveness, 202
agricultural corporations, 164
agricultural drought, 17, 19–21, 40, 85, 334
agricultural policies and programs promoting growth, 172
agricultural producers, 31, 103, 150, 155, 265, 292, 338–40, 354, 356. See also dryland farmers; farmers
organic, 128–29
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 147, 153, 204, 284–85, 294, 355
Dominion Experimental Farms research, 263
Agriculture Drought Risk Management Plan for Alberta–2010, 205
AgriInnovation, 202
AgriInsurance, 201, 203
AgriInvest, 201–2
AgriMarketing, 202
AgriRecovery, 201
AgriStability, 201–2
dissatisfaction with delivery, 203
reduced payouts under, 356
Agromatic Atlas of Chile, 309
agronomists, 116, 319
air seeder technology, 122
Alberta, 8, 49, 59–60, 62, 66, 79, 98, 200
adaptive response to water scarcity, 257, 259
AgriStability program management, 203–4
autonomy and individualistic values, 257
average Prairie Ecozone PET, 63
carbon tax, 207
cattle industry, 163
century farms, 130
climate change strategy, 208, 238
drought (2001–2), 2, 6, 87–90, 103, 236, 257
environmental groups / agricultural producers consensus, 265
flooding, 211
history of water policy, 235
intervention during Dirty Thirties, 186–87
irrigation projects, 137–38, 148, 155
land tenure changes, 186
land-use frameworks, 238
and PFRA’s community pasture program, 194
purpose of water legislation, 223
settlers, 47
shared water resources, 236, 257, 259 (See also Alberta market model)
values-analysis case study, 254
Water for Life strategy, 207
watershed planning through local watershed groups, 238
wheat farming, 194
Alberta Climate Change and Emissions Management Act (2003), 207, 238
Alberta Dry Belt, 191
Alberta Environment and Parks, 222, 264
Alberta market model (to allocate and price water), 229, 232, 236
Alberta Water Act, 236
Alberta Water Council, 222
Alberta’s 2008 Climate Change Strategy, 207, 238
Alberta’s Special Areas Board. See Special Areas Board
Andes region, 303, 307, 311, 328–29, 334–35
climate predictions for the, 342
Antarctic Oscillation, 330
anthropocentrism, 255
anthropogenic climate change, 41, 72–73, 163
anthropogenic stressors, 251
aquifers, 339
Argentina, 2–4, 9–10, 185, 353, 355. See also Mendoza River basin
aridity index, 62
“assets” or “capitals” required to support resilience, 4, 28
Australian drought (2006), 85
autonomy, 255, 257. See also individual
B
Battle Creek, 49, 138, 142
Bears Paw Mountains, 49
beaver, 183
beef cattle. See cattle ranching
beneficial management practices (BMPs), 205
Bennett, R.B., 193–94
Berry Creek Special Area Board, 191
Big Bud Tractors of Havre, Montana, 121
biocentrism, 255
biophysical-agroeconomic models, 22
biophysical perspectives on drought, 82, 84, 89
bison, 183–84
Blood Tribe First Nation, 91, 96, 254, 269
communal/biocentric values and traditional indigenous knowledge, 263
sense of place and local identity, 260–62
Bolivia, 3
bottom-up knowledge, 32
bottom-up local governance, 357
bottom-up perspective, 15
boundary objects, 281, 286–87, 295
boundary organizations, 266–67
Bourgault Industries of St. Brieux, Saskatchewan, 122
bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) crisis, 144, 155, 161, 354
British Columbia, 60
business risk-management programs, 200, 202
C
Cabri (Riverside Rural Municipality), 91, 94–97, 101, 254
Canada-Alberta Farm Stewardship Programs (FSPs), 205
Canada-Saskatchewan Farm Stewardship Programs (FSPs), 205
Canada-Saskatchewan Pasture Recovery Initiative (2010), 144
Canada-US Boundary Waters Treaty, 222
Canada’s Tri-Council, 294
Canadian Climate Archive, 186
Canadian Co-operative Implements, 121
Canadian government. See federal government
Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), 137, 185
Canadian Prairies, 2, 4–6, 62, 72, 200–205. See also Palliser Triangle
drought from a paleoclimate perspective, 39–55, 79
droughts before settlement, 163
evolution of tillage practices on the, 113
extreme precipitation, 68
innovative farmers and machine-shop operators on, 117
population density, 183
postglacial climate history, 45
reduction in number of farms on, 110–11
risk of severe future droughts, 69, 353
settlement period, 116
similarities to Maule region in Chile, 303
wet period early twentieth century, 22–23
Canadian Regional Climate Model (CRCM), 62, 64, 66
canals, 307–8, 312
canola, 95, 109
capacity building, 236–37, 292
capital investment, 319, 322–23
capitalized farmers (Argentina), 339–40
cattle grazing, 24, 134
cattle ranching, 96, 183–85
century farms, 130
chemical and nutrient pollution, 110
chemical fallow, 108–9, 121, 123, 125
chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides, 109, 122
chemical-intensive agriculture, 125
childcare services, 168, 170
Chile (Maule region of Chile), 2–4, 9–10, 145, 253, 353, 355
case study, 303–23
institutional framework favours large producers, 356
neo-liberalism, 237, 356
scarcity of labour, 314
Water Code (1981), 237, 307
Chilean National Meteorological Institute, 309
chisel plows, 116–17
Chrétien, Jean, 155
chronological control, 44
citizen engagement, 264
civil society, 208
civil society organizations, 218, 222
climate change, 2, 22, 103, 159, 200, 210–13, 217, 219
adaptation policies (Prairie provinces), 207–9
anthropogenic, 41, 61, 72–73, 82, 163
challenges to viticulture, 304–6
failures to adapt, 351
infrastructure to adapt to, 211
long-term, 331
political support for action, 238–39
records of, 44
climate change scenarios, 309
climate change science, 28, 209
climate cycles, 41
climate disasters, 334
climate proxies, 43, 45, 72
climate sciences, 5–6
climate stresses, 31
climatology, 5
co-operatives, 321
collaboration, 264, 295
rural-urban divide as barrier to, 294
collaborative drought preparedness in Saskatchewan, 295
collective resources and capacities, 356
combine harvester, 117
“Coming Down the Mountain” project, 3
commodity prices, 6, 23, 85, 111, 164, 186, 203, 354
communal/biocentric values, 263, 265
communal choice, 257, 259
communal/place-based values, 263
community-based source water protection, 284
community-based vulnerability approach, 305
community-level research (drought 2001–2), 91–92
community pastures, 117, 150, 189–91, 194–95
community sustainability, 27
community wells, 204
comparative perspective, 2
comparative studies, 358
CONAMA, 331
conflict resolution, 253, 262
conflicts over water, 234, 236, 240, 269, 336, 339
conservancy ethics, 329
conservation districts (Manitoba), 223
conservation tillage. See min till
Consul irrigation project, 152
consultative process with stakeholders, 264
contextually based approaches, 15, 24, 26–27
continuous cropping practices, 108–9, 120, 122–23, 125
Cordillera, 38, 334, 343
corn, 153
Coronach (Hart Butte RM), 92, 97
cost-price squeeze, 164, 354
“creeping” hazards, 17
critical action research, 285
crop diversification in the Palliser Triangle, 109
crop farming, water usage, 24
crop insurance, 201, 211, 219, 256, 320
changing climate and, 166
Crop insurance Corporation (Saskatchewan), 206
crop losses, 94–95
crop rotation, 109, 125
Crow Rate, 356
Crown, water owned by, 227–28
Crown land, 189
Crown leases, 191
Cypress Hills, 49, 72, 281
flooding (2010), 147
streams originating in, 138
Cypress Lake Reservoir, 141–42, 152
D
dams or weirs to retain water, 152, 194–95, 211
debt levels, 173, 292, 357
from farm expansion, 166
vulnerability caused by high levels, 172
debt rescheduling, 188
demonstration farms, 194
depopulation. See population displacement from agricultural regions
Depression. See Dirty Thirties; Great Depression
deregulatory policy changes, 164
desertification, 17, 342
determinants of adaptive capacity, 4, 28, 199
direct seeding, 108, 121, 127
Dirty Thirties, 47, 181, 186, 193
disaster assistance. See government disaster programs
diverse knowledge to navigate uncertainty, 280–81
Dominion Experimental Farms, 116, 263
Dominion Lands Act, 185
double exposures, 31, 337, 354–55
Douglas fir, 49
drinking water, 199, 222, 234, 282, 340
drought, 1, 25–32, 310, 312, 320, 327, 334
adaptation (See adaptation to droughts)
agricultural (See agricultural drought)
biophysical perspectives on, 82, 84, 89
coast-to-coast droughts in Canada, 60
definitions, 17, 21, 24, 39–40, 145, 205, 279, 334
different production models and, 145, 167
economic and social impacts, 82
future (See future droughts)
governance framework surrounding, 218
government policy in relation to, 199
hazards perspective on, 24–25
impact approach to studying, 83–84
impact on workloads, 167
meteorological, 17, 19, 40, 96, 334
more costly than other forms of natural disaster, 80
most severe before the Prairies were settled, 53
natural characteristic of Canadian Prairies, 59, 79, 82, 252
new farming practices designed to reduce exposure to, 6, 107–8 (See also min till)
overlap with economic and social crises, 6, 337
paleodrought, 42–43, 55
perceptions of, 22–23
second-order impacts of, 84, 89
self-sustaining, 17
socio-economic, 15, 19, 21–22, 40
sustained drought (1840–60s), 53
drought (1886), 113
drought (1890s), 60, 80
drought (1910s), 60, 80
drought (1920s), 47, 116, 204, 263, 266, 269
drought (1930s), 47, 60, 80, 116, 186, 204, 263, 266, 269, 281, 354
Canadian federal response to, 136
drought (1960s), 281
drought (1961), 117–18
drought (1966–70), 334–35
drought (1980s), 60, 80, 123, 281
interest in increasing drought resilience following, 124
made innovation desirable, 112
drought (1999–2005), 80, 82, 102
drought (2000–2004), 60
drought (2000s), 281
drought (2001–2), 2, 6, 79–103, 236, 252, 257, 260, 353
water sharing, 357
drought (2008–10), 60
drought indices, 43
drought planning exercises, 206
drought preparedness, 25, 279, 284, 294
Mendoza River basin, 10, 337
drought preparedness planning, 285
drought proxies, 41–44
drought resilience. See resilience
“Drought Risk Management Plan for Saskatchewan” (draft, 2002), 206
Drought Watch website, 204
Dry Belt, 182, 188
Dry Belt wheat farming
drought (1917-1927), 186
dryland agriculture, 109, 113, 139
dryland farmers, 21, 107–8, 110, 112, 128, 135–36, 144–45, 193
adopting new farming practices and machinery, 107–8
dryland farming, 40, 118, 130, 148, 265
dryland hay production, 134, 140, 147
dual accountability, 267
Dublin Principles, 264
duck-foot cultivators, 116–17
dugouts, 195, 200, 205, 211, 287
dry dugouts, 88, 90
Duncairn Dam, 282
Dust Bowl, 267
dust storms, 109, 193
E
Eastend Reservoir on the Frenchman River, 142
economic and social stressors, 337
economic assets, 29
economic capital, 337, 354–55. See also capital investment
economic or market instruments used in Alberta. See Alberta market model
economies of scale, 120, 164
education (literacy rates), 314, 323
Energy and Climate Change Plan (2007), 207
Environment Canada, 222, 355
environmental change, 43–44
environmental cleanup, 144, 147, 153
environmental groups, 254, 265
environmental sustainability, 265
equity, 237–38, 358
inequalities, 160
in relation to water governance instruments, 237–38
social equity, 312, 321
wealth redistribution, 256
eutrophication (nutrient pollution) in prairie lakes, 129
evapotranspiration, 21, 42
exposure sensitivities, 305–6
extreme climate events, 163, 185, 292
extreme events characterizations, 285
extreme precipitation, 68
extreme rainfall events, 5
extreme weather, 351
Ezee-On Manufacturing of Vegreville, Alberta, 122
F
farm equipment
chisel plows, 116
combine harvester, 117
duck-foot cultivators, 116
large, articulated four-wheel drive tractors, 121
local farm equipment manufacturing, 118–24
locally designed innovative tillage implements, 117, 124
moldboard plows, 116
new farm-machinery sales, 95
Noble blade, 117
on-farm modification of existing machinery, 119
one-way disc plow, 117
peg and disc harrows, 116
Prairie equipment manufacturers, 122
rod weeder, 117
specialized farming equipment for min till, 108
tillage and seeding machinery that combined two or more functions, 120–21
farm expansion, 164, 166, 173, 191–92, 357. See also debt levels
farm income-stabilizations policies. See income-stabilization policies
Farm Progress Show, 127
Farm Stress Line, 172
farm support programs
elimination of, 164
farm women, 357
adaptive strategies, 162, 171
caregivers and nurturers, 168–69, 171
contributions to agriculture marginalized, 167
experiences of BSE crisis, 161
food preparation, childcare, and healthcare, 160–61
hauling water (workload increased), 167, 170
“helper” identity, 161, 167
isolation due to gender roles, 162
less agency over concrete adaptation strategies, 161, 171
pressure to support others (stress of), 170
social networks, 170
temporary work or self-employment, 171
farmer-agronomist collaboration, 116
farmer innovators, 130. See also innovation
farmer-inventors and repair shop operators, 120
farmer-operated soil conservation associations, 124
farmers, 111. See also agricultural producers
beneficial land and water management practices, 265–66
capitalized farmers (Argentina), 339–40
“main farmer,” 161, 167–69
vulnerable to psychological consequences of drought, 169, 171
federal government
absence from water policy field, 134–35, 233–35, 240–41, 355
absent in long-term proactive planning, 210, 213
Canadian climate change policy, 211
declining support for Prairie agriculture, 9, 150, 195
establishment of cattle industry in Palliser Triangle, 184
on grain farming in Palliser Triangle, 194
greenhouse gas reduction plans, 211
intervention in Great Depression, 136, 187
irrigation, 134–35, 148, 155, 289
Justin Trudeau government, 209
loss of significant historical programs, 356
neo-liberalizing economy and restructuring agricultural sector, 9
rural water programs, 204
subsidized homestead settlement, 185
federal-provincial agricultural programming, 203–4
federal-provincial drought relief program, 144, 189
Federal Water Policy (1987), 233
fertilizer and seed in a single operation, 122
fertilizer sales, 95
financial institutions, 95
financial management, 98, 292
First Nation reserves, 91
Blood Tribe First Nation, 91, 96, 254, 260–63, 269
stakeholders with vested interest in water, 254
First Nations, 264
fish populations, 287
Flexi-Coil of Saskatoon, 122, 127
flood damaged irrigation works (Cypress Hills, 2010), 147
flood irrigation projects, 138, 146, 307
floods, 200
focus group discussions, 287
formal institutions, 199
free market principles, 256
free trade, 355
freedom of choice, 256
Frenchman River, 49
Friggstad, Olaf, 121, 127, 130
fruit growing (Chile), 306–7
FRWIP, 203, 210–11
FSPs, 205, 210–11
future droughts, 5, 60–61, 82, 163
Canadian Prairie agricultural region, 62–71
greater adaptive capacity will be required, 54, 74
intensification in 21st century, 69
long-term droughts projected to increase, 66
more frequent and severe drought, 9, 27–28, 40, 200, 209, 352
multi-year droughts forecast, 65–66, 68
prolonged and severe droughts, 162
risk of severe, 69
G
gender and drought, 159–73. See also farm women
gender vulnerabilities to climate, 7
gendered division of labour, 160–61
global climate models (GCMs), 62–64
global environmental change, 8. See also climate change
global warming, 54, 73
glyphosate herbicides, 124
goat breeders, 335, 337, 339
Govenlock irrigation project, 152
governance, 7, 30, 199–200, 218
government agency management model, 228–29
government disaster programs, 172–73
government programs in times of environmental crisis, 166
grain, open market for, 303
grain brokers, 95
grain farming, 194
grape growing (Mendoza), 335
Gravelbourg (Gravelbourg RM), 92, 95, 97
Gray, J.H., Men Against the Desert, 263
Great Depression, 117, 136, 162, 181, 187, 193
Great Plains of North America, 44, 48–49
greenhouse gas climate of the 21st century, 54
greenhouse gas emissions, 200
greenhouse gas reduction plan (Alberta), 207
grey water, 101
ground and surface water supplies, 88
over-allocation, 20
groundwater springs, 281
groundwater wells, 313
group values, 251
Growing Forward, 200, 202, 210
Growing Forward 2, 200, 202
Guide to Farm Practice in Saskatchewan (1987), 123
H
Hanna (Special Area No. 2), 91, 254
Harper, Stephen, 155
on carbon pricing or a carbon tax, 209
emissions targets, 208
hazards perspective on drought, 24–25
health effects from drought, 82, 86
herbicides, 122, 124
historical (archival) records, 46–48
hoe drill, 121
holistic approach to water planning, 211, 268–69
homestead settlement, 185
horticulture (Argentina), 335, 337
Hudson’s Bay Company Archives in Winnipeg, 46–47
human capital, 6, 30, 74, 112–13, 130, 337
human-induced climate change, 61, 82
human-induced drought, 22
hunting and gathering, 183
hydraulic society, 336, 339
hydro-climate variability assessments, 285
hydro-electric power, 91
hydro-illogical cycle, 25
hydrological drought, 15, 19–21, 40, 52, 96, 334
streamflow as best index, 48
I
impact approach to studying drought, 83–84
income-stabilization policies, 209
income-stabilization programs, 200
Indigenous famine, 184. See also First Nation reserves
Indigenous inhabitants of Palliser Triangle
water management strategy, 183
individual, 269
individual, group and institutional values
interconnectedness, 263
individual freedom, 255
individual (single farm) irrigation systems, 137
informal institutions, 199, 218
informal social networks, 356
innovation, 116–19, 122, 125, 127–28, 202
as a cultural value, 111–13
flexibility and adaptability, 130
importance to survival in Prairie agriculture, 127
institutionalized social value, 108
mechanically adept farmers, 119
organic producers as innovators, 129
reducing vulnerability through, 113
innovation theory, 111
innovative technologies, 6, 339–40
Institutional Adaptation to Climate Change (IACC), 3, 80, 91, 94, 96, 101, 136, 236, 253, 264, 267
institutional capital, 7, 30, 135, 337, 355
institutional framework, 8
institutional memory, 234–35
institutional values, 252
institutions, 217
institutions as determinants, 199
institutions of civil society, 7
instrument models
government agency management, 228
market (water as private property), 228, 232
user-based management, 228
insurance coverage, 172
insurance services, 30, 166
Integrated Surface Drought Index, 21
“integrated water resource management” (IWRM), 264
integrative knowledge, 267
intense rainfall events (or extreme participation), 68, 154
interaction approach, 83
interdisciplinary approach, 8–9, 15–16, 351
interdisciplinary planning approaches, 264
interdisciplinary research, 21
intergenerational learning, 126, 130
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 26–28, 68–69, 113, 160, 217, 269
international commodity markets, 292
International Development Research Centre, 294
International Institute for Sustainable Development, 208
International Joint Commission, 222
interprovincial conflicts over water, 234, 240
interviews in Maule Chile study, 308
invasive species programs, 294
inventiveness. See innovation
irrigated agriculture in Mendoza region
automatic irrigation systems, 340
intensive and diversified, 329
irrigation, 6, 21, 23, 96, 133, 194–95, 352
drip systems, 307
drought resilience through, 134
dryland hay production and, 134
government-managed irrigation projects, 135–36
multiple-user irrigation projects, 137–38
non-existent or limited access to, 31, 329
producer reliance on government support for, 136
Southwest Saskatchewan, 10, 134–38, 289, 353
irrigation agriculture, 145
irrigation (Chile), 307
water shortages, 311
irrigation technology, 322
irrigators
increasing vulnerability, 154
inequity between capitalized and others, 358
irrigators trying to develop innovative response
“Catch-22” scenarios, 152
prevented by government, 147–48
island forests, 43, 48
J
Jones, David, 188
K
Kainai Blood Indian Reserve (KBIR), 91, 96, 254, 260–63, 269
“Killer Winter of 1906–7,” 185
Kindersley (Kindersley RM), 92, 95, 97, 101
knowledge-bridging processes, 281, 286, 292, 295, 357
Kyoto Protocol, 208, 212
L
labour-saving technology, 120
Lake Athabasca, 45
Lake Diefenbaker, 97, 139–40, 148
lake sediments, 45, 72
laminated sediments, 43–44
land claims and associated survey systems, 23
land management practices, 107
land tenure changes, 186
land-use change, 44
land-use frameworks, 208
land-use policy, 24
leases (21-year leases), 184–85
Lethbridge area irrigation projects, 194
Little Ice Age, 45, 183
“lived experience” of drought, 26
livestock industry, 204. See also cattle grazing
local farm equipment manufacturing, 118–24
local institutional capital, 30
local knowledge and experience, 113, 269
local newspapers, advertising in, 95
local watershed committees, 240, 264
source water protection planning by, 229
local watershed stewardship organizations
key role in preparing for drought, 295
locally designed innovative tillage implements, 117, 124
lodgepole pine, 49
long-term adaptation strategies, 98
long-term drought strategies, 209
long-term programming, 289
Long Term Safe Drinking Water Strategy, 282
Lontué River, 307
low taxes, 155
M
machine technology, 107
MacKay, Angus, 116
MacKinnon family, 138
Maidstone (Eldon RM), 92, 95, 97, 101
“main farmer,” 161, 167
vulnerability related to, 168
women as, 169
management instruments, 235–36
Manitoba, 59, 66, 79, 161, 194
century farms, 130
climate change strategy, 208, 239
drought (2001–2), 88
flood protection plans, 239
government agency management model, 229
Great Depression, 187
history of water policy, 235
water legislation, 223
watershed management plans, 239
Manitoba Water Protection Act, 223
Manitoba Water Stewardship Division, 222
Maple Creek flood (2010), 154
Maple Creek irrigation project, 147
Maple Creek (Maple Creek RM), 92, 95, 97
maps, 286–87
market, 255
private-sector marketing system, 303
market and economic values (in values analysis), 256
market-based instruments, 240
market-based management model, 229
market conditions, 31, 314
market-garden operations, 95
market instrument (tradable water interest), 234–36
Marquis Wheat, 116
Martin, Paul, 155
masculinity, stoic and independent form of, 169
Master Agreement of Apportionment (Canada, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba), 234
Maule River, 307
Medicine Hat Times, 47
Medieval Climate Anomaly, 72
Men Against the Desert (Gray), 263
Mendoza (city), 335
Mendoza River, 336
Mendoza River basin, 10, 22, 31, 327–43
agriculture integrated with industrial sector, 335
dependency on water resources, 336
“dry pampas,” 329
gap between agribusiness and subsistence producers, 338
institutional framework favours large producers, 356
irrigation, 145, 329–30, 335–36, 338
marginal agriculture with limited access to irrigation, 329
small-scale producers, 338–39
vulnerability to climate variability, 330
vulnerability to drought, 335–38
meteorological drought, 17, 19, 40, 96, 334
min till, 23, 28, 107–30, 352. See also zero till
adoption on the Canadian Prairies, 111–12, 128
criticism, 110
environmental problems from, 128–29
innovations by local farmer and machinery manufacturers, 135
product of an adaptive culture, 125–28
min till (1990s), 124–25
min till vs. organic debate, 128–29
minimal government, 155
moisture deficit, 61
moisture loss, 116
moisture retention, 123
moldboard plows, 116
Monk, Sheri, 151
moral economy, 259–60, 263, 267–69, 271
Morris, George, 130
multi-generational survival of farming units, 130
multi-year droughts forecast, 65–66, 68
multi-year droughts on the Prairies, 80, 82
multiple-user irrigation projects, 137–38
municipal drinking water. See drinking water
N
National Water Supply Expansion Program (2000–2009), 204
natural and social scientific views, 328
natural and social systems, 343
natural capital, 29, 74, 337, 352
Natural Resource Transfer Agreement (1930), 190
Natural Resources Canada, 268, 355
natural stressors, 251
neo-liberal Water Code, 237–38
neo-liberalism, 9, 24, 155, 356, 358
Neutral Hills Special Area, 191
New Democratic Party governments in Saskatchewan, 155
new farm-machinery sales, 95
“new viticulture,” 340–41
La Niña episodes, 330
El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), 52, 54, 330, 342
Noble, Charles, 130
Noble blade, 117
non-agricultural sectors, 90, 103
drought effects, 86
non-climatic controls, 44
non-climatic stressors, 31
non-profit organizations, 218
North American Drought Atlas, 42
North Saskatchewan River watershed, 206
NVivo software, 254
O
oases (“green oases”), 327, 330, 332, 335, 338
ocean-atmosphere circulation anomalies, 73
off-farm work, 162, 169, 171, 340, 355
offloading of responsibilities (irrigation) onto provincial governments and producers, 150, 155
oil and gas industry
increased water costs, 95
Okanagan grape industry, 23
one-way disc plow, 117
Ontario, 187
open-range cattle ranching, 183, 185
organic producers, 128–29
“Our True Immigration Policy,” 47
Outlook (Rudy RM), 91, 94–95, 97, 101, 139, 254
P
Pacific Climate Episode (AD 1250–1550). See Little Ice Age
Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), 52, 54, 330–31
paleo record frequency, 67–68
paleoclimate, 41
paleoclimate of the Canadian Prairies, 72–73, 79
paleoclimatic context, 40
paleoclimatic research, 5, 154, 353
paleodrought, 42–43, 55
paleoecology of the Peace-Athabasca Delta, 72
paleohydrology in the dry core of the northern Great Plains, 49
paleolimnology of Humboldt Lake, Saskatchewan, 72
Palliser, John, 47, 182
Palliser Triangle, 23, 92, 98, 182. See also Canadian Prairies
adoption of innovations, 112
agricultural practices adapted for, 113, 116
crop diversification, 109
Dirty Thirties, 193
drought (2001–2), 109–10
history of drought in, 183–87
history of drought mitigation practices, 109
innovative practices by dryland farmers, 108
irrigation, 133
more intense droughts possible, 154
organic producers, 129
reduction in number of farmers, 120
southwest Saskatchewan, 134, 141, 150–51, 154–55
wheat boom, 185
Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI), 21, 42, 61, 66–67, 80, 82, 328
PAR approach to bridge knowledge systems, 285–86
participatory action research. See PAR
participatory mapping, 253, 287, 295
participatory planning with a diversity of stakeholders, 296
participatory scenario process, 289
participatory vulnerability assessment, 286
“pathways of double exposures,” 4
Peace-Athabasca Delta (PAD), 45
peg and disc harrows, 116
Peigan, 262, 265–66
Penman-Monteith method, 62
people-centred focus, 32
perceptions of drought, 22–23
permanent wetlands in the Prairie Ecozone, 43
pipelines (water), 200, 204, 211, 222, 289
place, 255
place-based agricultural research, 263–64
place-based interests, 268–69
place-based values, 260–62
pneumatic seed delivery, 122
policy aimed at both flood and drought, 211
policy interventions, 8, 187, 191
political processes, 31
political support for climate change action, 238–39
ponderosa pine, 49
population displacement from agricultural regions, 120, 187, 189, 191, 194, 259, 352, 357
free transportation, 188
south Saskatchewan, 111
post-war decades
economies of scale, 120
growth in chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides, 122
innovations such as the combine harvester, 117
potential evapotranspiration (PET), 62
for Prairie Ecozone, 63
Potrerillos Dam, 339
pragmatism, 260
Prairie Adaptation Research Collaborative (PARC), 285–86, 294
Prairie equipment manufacturers, 122
Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration (PFRA), 7, 107, 116, 148, 152, 188, 193–95, 204, 222, 263–64
abandonment of irrigation responsibilities, 136, 143–44, 146, 150
as boundary organization, 266
community pastures, 117
counterproductive dependency on, 151
dismantled by federal government, 147, 155, 173, 195–96, 355
irrigation and dam projects, 116, 136, 138, 194
projects in southwestern Saskatchewan, 138–40, 143
Prairie paleodrought
historical (archival) records, 46–48
lake and terrestrial sediments, 45–46
studies of sediments, archival documents, and tree rings, 45
tree rings, 47–48
Prairie Provinces Water Board, 222
precautionary principle, 208
precipitation, timing of, 21
PRECIS (Providing Regional Climates for Impacts Studies), 309
preparedness planning (drought preparedness), 9, 279–80
need for long-term studies, 342–43
privatization of water, 358
proactive adaptation (drought preparedness), 279–80
property rights associated with water, 226–27, 229
provincial and federal water managers
treaty obligations with US, 143
provincial structures of water governance, 229
proxy, 41, 43
public (Crown) land, 189
public engagement, 253
public ownership, 256
public ownership under control of the Special Areas board, 191
pulse crops, 109, 125
Q
quantitative analyses, 25
quantitative expressions of drought, 42
Quebec, 187
R
railway companies, 188
Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), 137, 185
reactive adaptation strategies, 280
reconstruction of environmental history, 41
recreation, 282
Red Deer River, 189
Regina water conservation programs, 206
regional climate models (RCMs), 62
Reid Lake Reservoir, 282
research and development, 202
residential school experience, 260
resilience, 3, 5, 134, 271, 352
based on experience with past droughts, 27
farmers in areas normally exposed to droughts, 23
women, 7
resilience-enhancing infrastructure, 155
resilience of a community, 4, 7, 15
resolution, 44
Richardson family, 138
rising input costs, 6
risk and vulnerability studies, 328
risk management approach to drought, 24, 200, 202
risk of drought (changing), 61
Riverside. See Cabri (Riverside Rural Municipality)
Rocky Mountains, 20, 48, 137, 145, 194
rod weeder, 117
Rolling Hills irrigation projects, 195
Rosenheim Special Area, 191
rural communities
agricultural drought and, 85
drought (2001–2), 103
Rural Communities Adaptation to Drought (RCAD), 3, 80, 91, 95–96, 109–11, 117, 119, 121, 123–24, 127–28, 136
Rural Municipality of Reno, 155
rural people’s vulnerability to climate in arid areas, 2
rural relief, 144, 189
encouraged farmers to stay on the land, 193
farm families still abandoned farms, 194
rural-urban divide as barrier to collaboration, 294
Rural Water Development Program, 204
S
salt cedar monitoring, 294
sand dune deposits, 46
sand dunes, 44
Saskatchewan, 3, 8, 44, 46, 49, 59–60, 62, 66, 79, 98, 200
agricultural production, 162
AgriStability program management, 203–4
average Prairie Ecozone PET, 63
century farms, 130
childcare services, 168
drought (2001–2), 2, 6, 87–91, 103
environmental groups / agricultural groups opposing views, 265
gender and drought (study), 159–73
government agency management model, 229
Great Depression, 186–87
history of water policy, 235
intergovernmental drought monitoring committee, 206
irrigation, 6, 138, 148–49, 155
need for a drought plan, 207
organic producers, 129
Palliser Triangle could be reclaimed for grain farming, 194
RCAD studies, 92
reduction in number of farms on, 111
relief funding, 193
settlers, 47
values-analysis case study, 254
wheat price, 85
Saskatchewan AgriVision Corporation, 149
Saskatchewan Department of Agriculture, 206
Saskatchewan Farm and Ranch Water Infrastructure Program (FRWIP), 204, 210–11
Saskatchewan Irrigation Projects Association (SIPA), 149
Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture, 284–85
Saskatchewan Ministry of Environment, 206
Saskatchewan Ministry of Municipal Relations, 285
Saskatchewan New Democratic Party Government
Energy and Climate Change Plan (2007), 207, 238
Saskatchewan Party government, 204
Saskatchewan Power Corporation, 91
Saskatchewan Research Council (SRC), 285–86, 292
Saskatchewan River, 189
Saskatchewan Water Security Agency, 150, 282
Saskatchewan Watershed Advisory Committee, 222
Saskatchewan Watershed Authority (SWA), 143, 147, 264, 282, 284–85, 294
Saskatoon, 80
scenario assessments, 295
scenarios, 286
scenarios (participatory scenarios), 287
sediments, 43–45, 72
seedbed preparation, 116
semi-arid Prairie Ecozone, 48
sensitivity, 10, 15, 21, 43, 287, 294, 309–10, 327, 339
sensitivity/adaptive capacity, 4, 15, 25–28, 40, 305, 308, 337
settlement period, 116
settlers, 47
Shaunavon (Grassy Creek RM and Arlington RM), 92, 281
silviculture, 307
SIMPROC modelling, 306, 309–10, 316, 321–22
small-scale operations, 172, 256, 339–40, 355
snow-cover seasons, 69
snowmelt runoff, 281, 303, 307, 329–32
snowpack deficits, 39, 142–43
snowpack in the mountains, 9
social, economic, and political context, 21
social and economic conditions, 9
social and natural scientific perspectives, 3
social capital, 30, 259–60, 263, 267–69, 271, 337, 356–57
social dimensions of climate events, 160
social-ecological systems, 279–81
social economy, 260
social equity, 312, 321
social regulation, 256
social reproduction tasks, 161
social responsibility/community, 255
social systems, 3–4
effects of drought on, 6, 86
social vulnerability, 26, 351
society, 255
society and communal values (in value analysis), 257–60
socio-economic conditions, 15
socio-economic considerations of drought, 23–24, 27
socio-economic droughts, 15, 19, 21–22, 40
socio-economic-political perspectives on droughts, 82
soil conservation, 109, 287, 289
planting grass in blown-out areas, 194
soil erosion, 205. See also wind erosion
soil management, 117
soil moisture depletion, 39
solar radiation levels, 64
Sounding Creek Special Area, 191
source water protection planning, 223, 229
South Saskatchewan River, 138, 281
South Saskatchewan River basin (SSRB), 20, 228–29, 252
South Saskatchewan River basin (SSRB) stakeholders, 253–54
South Saskatchewan River Dam project, 139
Southwest Enterprise Region, 285
southwest Saskatchewan
availability of water for irrigation (1979-2009), 141
cattle ranching, 134
concern over potential loss of access to irrigation, 150
decline in number of farmers and viable communities, 151, 155
planning for future irrigation in, 154
three-decade period of low water supply, 141
soybeans, 153
Special Areas Administration, 187–92
Special Areas Board (Alberta), 7, 107, 191, 194–96, 355
institutional adaptation to drought, 24
Special Areas in Alberta, 94
Acadia Valley Special Area, 191
Berry Creek Special Area Board, 191
Hanna (Special Area No.2), 91
Neutral Hills Special Area, 191
Rosenheim Special Area, 191
Sounding Creek Special Area, 191
Special Area No. 1, 189
Sullivan Lake Special Area, 191
St. Mary’s River, 236
stakeholder analysis, 252–54
stakeholder needs, 20–21
stakeholder participation, 24, 286
stakeholder values as identified by IACC research, 262–67
stakeholder vulnerability to drought, 252
stakeholders, power differentials among, 268
stakeholders and governments, 270
Standardized Precipitation-Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), 42, 61
Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), 20, 42, 61, 66–67
Statistics Canada, 168
Steiger Tractor of Fargo, North Dakota, 121
Stewart Valley (Saskatchewan Landing RM), 91, 94–95, 254, 281
straw spreading, 109
streamflow, 48–49, 53, 88
stress, 169–70
from climate extremes, 167
from lack of control over major farm decisions, 161
mental health and psychological stress, 172
mental health support systems lacking, 172
reducing adaptive capacity of producers, 354
strip farming, 116
sugar beets, 153
Sullivan Lake Special Area, 191
summer fallow, 108, 116, 118, 123, 193
surface water, 338
Surface Water Supply Index, 20
susbsistence food production, 162
sustainable resource management practices, 208
Sweet Grass Hills, 49
Swift Current, 281–82
Swift Current Creek, 41, 49, 52–53
Swift Current Creek watershed
lack of long-term secure funding, 296
recurring severe droughts, 281
Swift Current Creek watershed (case study), 279–96
Swift Current Creek Watershed Protection Plan, 285
Swift Current Creek Watershed Stewards (SCCWS), 282, 284–85, 294
Swift Current federal research station, 123
T
Taber (Taber Municipal District), 91, 94–97, 254
technological and infrastructure development (need for investing in), 256
technological and mechanical proficiency (farmers), 130
technological innovations, 6, 111, 339–40. See also innovation
technology, 29, 107, 337
irrigation technology, 322
labour-saving, 120
technology/research, 98
temperature, 69, 313, 322, 330, 332
Teno River, 307
Thornthwaite method, 62
Tilley East area, 189
Tilley East Area Board, 190
time-path study of changes in adaptive capacity, 358
time-series analyses, 62
timeline exercises, 287
timelines, 286, 295
top-down regulatory approach, 264, 267
tourism, 329
tradable water interests, 232, 234–35
traditional indigenous knowledge, 263
Treaty 6 (1876), 184
Treaty 7 (1877), 184
tree nurseries, 150
tree-ring chronologies, 42–43, 46
Tree-Ring Lab at the University of Regina, 48
tree-ring reconstruction of hydrological drought, 48–53
tree rings, 44–45, 47–48, 328
effective proxy of annual streamflow, 49, 53
treed shelter belts, 116
Trudeau, Justin, 209
trust, 257–58, 260
in market instrument (tradable water interest), 235–36
stakeholders for governments, 270
25 Year Saskatchewan Water Security Plan, 207, 223, 238–39, 264
U
UK Hadley climate model (HadCM3), 66
under-capitalized producers in Chilean agriculture, 340
“unfair economic practices,” 259
United Farmers of Alberta (UFA), 188
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 208
United States, 53
upgrading water supply systems after a drought, 95
Upper Souris Watershed Plan, 206
upstream withdrawal from river systems, 20
urban sprawl, 336
user-based management, 228–29, 240–41
V
values, 251
values analysis, 9, 252–56, 269, 271
boundary organizations in, 266–67
water as focal point, 254
values mapping, 262
values of freedom of choice/action and individual autonomy, 257
vapour pressure levels, 64
variability in access to water resources, 353
varves, 44
Versatile Manufacturing of Winnipeg, Manitoba, 121
Vidora irrigation project, 152
viniculture, 307, 322
viticulture sector (Argentina), 329, 337
drought, 332
viticulture sector (Chile), 304, 307, 322
need for irrigation, 304
vulnerability, 3, 15, 25–26, 154, 280, 292, 312, 328
definition, 4, 27–28
for different types of agricultural producers, 31
function of natural conditions and ability of systems to adapt, 25
integral part of human experience in the Palliser Triangle, 183
related to stage of career (agricultural producers), 292
socially constructed concept, 8, 251
subject to change, 31–32
Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Extremes in the Americas (VACEA) project, 3, 294
vulnerability approach, 3
vulnerability assessments, 305–6
vulnerability perspective, 352
vulnerability reduction, 8–9
W
water allocation, 20, 150, 153, 223
FITFER (first-in-time, first-in-right), 257
Master Agreement of Apportionment (Canada, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba), 234
southwest Saskatchewan, 146–47
water allocations for environmental protection, 268
water as a community resource, 268
water as privately owned, 227–28, 358
water as publicly owned, 223, 227
water conflicts, 234, 236, 240, 269, 336, 339
water conservation programs, 30, 96–97, 101
water for agricultural production, 282
Water for Life initiative (Alberta), 235, 238, 264
water governance, 8, 218
to achieve adaptive capacity, 219
Canada, 24
Chile, 24
institutional structure of, 222–26
water governance and adaptive capacity, 217–18
“Water Governance and Climate Change,” 3
water governance instruments
equity in relation to, 237–38
water hoarding, 312, 321
water infrastructure programs, 222
water instruments, 226–29
water law, 218
water management in Canada
shared jurisdiction, 222, 233
water owned by the Crown, 227–28
water pipelines, 200, 204, 211, 222, 289
water quality, 223
water rationing, 97
Water Resources Act (Manitoba), 239
water-retention facilities, 222
Water Security Agency (Saskatchewan), 206, 222
water-sharing and water-market relationship (2001–2 drought), 260
water sharing by irrigators and communities, 236, 357
water storage communities, 211
water stresses, 31
watershed associations, 222
local watershed committees, 229, 240, 264
local watershed stewardship organizations, 295
watershed organizations
modern-day boundary organizations, 267
stakeholders with vested interest in water, 254
watershed planning efforts, 268
watershed planning through local watershed groups, 206–8
wealth redistribution, 256
wells, 313, 338
wheat, 23, 95, 185, 187, 191
Wheat Board, 155, 356
white spruce, 49
“wicked problems,” 8
“wickedness” of droughts, 16–17, 32
wind erosion, 88, 116–17, 193. See also soil erosion
wine industry (Chile), 304
access to capital, 319, 323
drought-related vulnerabilities, 304, 314–20
World Economic Forum, 351
World War I
wheat boom, 185
World War II
limits on steel during, 117
Z
zero till, 108. See also min till