Notes
Bibliography
Abdi, Rashid. “A Dangerous Gulf in the Horn: How the Inter-Arab Crisis Is Fueling Regional Tensions.” International Crisis Group, 3 August 2017. https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/dangerous-gulf-horn-how-inter-arab-crisis-fuelling-regional-tensions.
Abi-Saab, Georges. The United Nations Operation in the Congo, 1960–1964. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
Adam, Hussein M. “Formation and Recognition of New States: Somaliland in Contrast to Eritrea.” Review of African Political Economy 21, no. 59 (1994): 21–38
Addo, Michael K. “Political Self Determination within the Context of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights.” Journal of African Law 32, no. 2 (1988): 182–93.
Adebajo, Adekeye. Curse of Berlin: Africa After the Cold War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Akinrade, Sola. Africa in the Post Cold War International System. Washington, DC: Bloomsbury Academic, 1998.
Akpan, Ntieyong U. The Struggle for Secession, 1966–1970: A Personal Account of the Nigerian Civil War. London: F. Cass, 1971.
Akuchu, Gemuh E. “Peaceful Settlement of Disputes: Unsolved Problem for the OAU (A Case Study of the Nigeria-Biafra Conflict).” Africa Today 24, no. 4 (1977): 39–58.
Ali, Bashir. “How an Unrecognised State’s Port Deal Could Shift Dynamics across the Horn.” African Arguments, 1 May 2018. https://africanarguments.org/2018/05/01/how-an-unrecognised-states-port-deal-could-shift-dynamics-across-the-horn-berbera-port-dpworld-somaliland/.
Arachie, C. E. The Bye-Gone: Horrors of a Crude War; Biafra Experience. Lagos, Nigeria: C.E. Arachie, 1991.
Arnold, Matthew B. “The South Sudan Defence Force: Patriots, Collaborators or Spoilers?” Journal of Modern African Studies 45, no. 4 (2007): 489–516.
Assensoh, A. B. African Political Leadership: Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkrumah, and Julius K. Nyerere. Malabar, FL: Krieger, 1998.
Azikiwe, Nnamdi. Origins of the Nigerian Civil War. Apapa: Nigerian National Press, 1969.
Badmus, Isiaka Alani. “The Quest for Security After the Cold War: Africa’s Security Concerns.” Review of International Affairs 60, no. 1133/34 (2009): 25–47.
Bahadur, Jay. The Pirates of Somalia: Inside Their Hidden World. New York: Vintage, 2012.
Bassil, Noah R. The Post-Colonial State and Civil War in Sudan: The Origins of Conflict in Darfur. London: I.B. Tauris, 2013.
BBC. “Profile: Somalia’s Islamic Courts,” 6 June 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5051588.stm.
BBC. “Q&A: Horn’s Bitter Border War,” 7 December 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4041073.stm.
Benjaminsen, Tor A. “Does Supply-Induced Scarcity Drive Violent Conflicts in the African Sahel? The Case of the Tuareg Rebellion in Northern Mali.” Journal of Peace Research 45, no. 6 (2008): 819–36.
Bereketeab, Redie, ed. Self-Determination and Secession in Africa: The Post-Colonial State. New York: Routledge, 2016.
Beshir, Mohamed Omer. The Southern Sudan: From Conflict to Peace. London: C. Hurst, 1975.
Bhebe, Ngwabi, and Terence Ranger. Soldiers in Zimbabwe’s Liberation War. London: James Currey, 1995.
Boas, Morten, and Kevin C. Dunn. African Guerrillas: Raging Against the Machine. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2007.
Boisvert, Marc Andre. “Failing at Violence: The Longer-Lasting Impact of Pro-Government Militias in Northern Mali since 2012.” African Security 8, no. 4 (2015): 272–98.
Brackhill, Jeremy. “Daring to Storm the Heavens: the Military Strategy of ZAPU 1976 to 1979.” In Bhebe and Ranger, Soldiers in Zimbabwe’s Liberation War, 48–72.
Bradbury, Mark. Becoming Somaliland. Oxford: James Currey, 2008.
——— . “Sudan: International Responses to War in the Nuba Mountains.” Review of African Political Economy 25, no. 77 (1998): 463–74.
Bradbury, Mark, Adan Yusuf Abokor, and Haroon Ahmed Yusuf. “Somaliland: Choosing Politics over Violence.” Review of African Political Economy 30, no. 97 (2003): 455–78.
Brons, Maria. Society, Security, Sovereignty, and the State in Somalia: From Statelessness to Statelessness? Utrecht: International Books, 2001.
Bruce, James. Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile. Edinburgh: Robinson, 1790.
Bulhan, Xuseen Cabdillahi. “A Self-Portrait of Somaliland: Rebuilding from the Ruins.” Somaliland Centre for Peace and Development Xarunta Nabada Iyo Horumarinta Soomaaliland, War-Torn Societies Project, 1999.
C.L. “The National Service in Eritrea: Miserable and Useless.” The Economist, 10 March 2014. https://www.economist.com/baobab/2014/03/10/miserable-and-useless.
Červenka, Zdenĕk. The Nigerian War, 1967–1970: History of the War: Selected Bibliography and Documents. Frankfurt am Main: Bernard & Graefe, 1971.
Chabal, Patrick, and Jean-Pascal Daloz. Africa Works: Disorder as Political Instrument. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999.
Chakravorty, B. The Congo Operation, 1960–63. Edited by Sri Nandan Prasad. New Delhi: Historical Section, Ministry of Defence, Government of India, 1976.
Chaliand, Gérard. “The Horn of Africa’s Dilemma.” Foreign Policy, no. 30 (Spring 1978): 116–31.
Cherry, Janet. Spear of the Nation (Umkhonto WeSizwe): South Africa’s Liberation Army, 1960s–1990s. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2012.
Cissoko, Joachin F. “A Third-World Country Facing Indigenous Insurgencies: The Malian Touareg Insurgency.” Master’s thesis, US Command and General Staff College, 2011.
Clapham, Christopher, ed. African Guerrillas. Oxford: James Currey, 1998.
Clayton, Anthony. Frontiersmen: Warfare in Africa since 1950. London: UCL Press, 1999.
Clayton, Anthony, and David Killingray. Khaki and Blue: Military and Police in British Colonial Africa. Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 1989.
Cliffe, Lionel. “Peace in the Horn This Year?” Review of African Political Economy 30, no. 97 (2003): 497–504.
——— . “Regional Dimensions of Conflict in the Horn of Africa.” Third World Quarterly 20, no. 1 (1999): 89–111.
Cline, Lawrence E. “Nomads, Islamists, and Soldiers: The Struggles for Northern Mali.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 36, no. 8 (2013): 617–34.
Collins, Robert O. “Africans, Arabs, and Islamists: From the Conference Tables to the Battlefields in the Sudan.” African Studies Review 42, no. 2 (1999): 105–23.
——— . A History of Modern Sudan. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
——— . The Southern Sudan in Historical Perspective. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2007.
Colvin, Ian. The Rise and Fall of Moïse Tshombe: A Biography. London: Leslie Frewin, 1968.
Compagnon, Daniel. “Somali Armed Movements.” In Clapham, African Guerrillas, 73–90.
Connell, Dan. Against All Odds: A Chronicle of the Eritrean Revolution. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1993.
Cooper, Frederick. Africa since 1940: The Past of the Present. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Copnall, James. “Sudan: Why Abyei Is Crucial to North and South.” BBC, 23 May 2011. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13502845.
Cristiani, Dario, and Riccardo Fabiani. “The Malian Crisis and Its Actors.” International Spectator 48, no. 3 (2013): 78–97.
Cronjé, Suzanne. The World and Nigeria: The Diplomatic History of the Biafran War, 1967–1970. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1972.
Davidson, Basil. The Black Man’s Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation-State. New York: Times Books, 1992.
——— . Modern Africa: A Social and Political History. New York: Routledge, 1994.
——— . The People’s Cause: A History of Guerillas in Africa. Burnt Mill, UK: Longman, 1983.
Dayal, Rajeshwar. Mission for Hammarskjöld: the Congo Crisis. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976.
De St. Jorre, John. The Nigerian Civil War. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1973.
——— . “Nigerian Civil War Notebook.” Transition, no. 38 (June–July 1971): 36–41.
De Waal, Alexander. “Counter-Insurgency of the Cheap.” Review of African Political Economy 31, no. 102 (2004): 716–25.
——— . Evil Days: 30 Years of War and Famine in Ethiopia. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1991.
——— . War in Sudan. London: Peace in Sudan Group, 1990.
De Witte, Ludo. The Assassination of Lumumba. New York: Verso, 2002.
Decker, Alicia C., and Andrea L. Arrington. Africanizing Democracies: 1980–Present. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.
Deng, Francis Mading. War of Visions: Conflict of Identities in the Sudan. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1995.
Devlin, Larry. Chief of Station, Congo: Fighting the Cold War in a Hot Zone. New York: PublicAffairs, 2008.
Dorn, Walter. “The UN’s First ‘Air Force’: Peacekeepers in Combat, Congo 1960–64.” Journal of Military History 77, no. 4 (2013): 1399–1425.
Doron, Roy. “Marketing Genocide: Biafran Propaganda Strategies during the Nigerian Civil War, 1967–70.” Journal of Genocide Research 16, no. 2/3 (2014): 227–46.
Dorsey, William H. “Anyanya Leader Joseph Lagu.” Africa Report 17, no. 9 (1972): 17–19.
Doyle, Rose, and Leo Quinlan. Heroes of Jadotville: The Soldiers’ Story. Dublin: New Island, 2016.
Drysdale, J. G. S. Somaliland: the Anatomy of Secession. Hove, UK: Global-Stats, 1992.
——— . Stoics Without Pillows: A Way Forward for the Somalilands. London: HAAN, 2000.
Elmi, Afyare Abdi. Understanding the Somalia Conflagration: Identity, Political Islam and Peacebuilding. New York: Pluto Press, 2010.
Emerson, Stephen A. “Desert Insurgency: Lessons from the Third Tuareg Rebellion.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 22, no. 4 (2011): 669–87.
Englebert, Pierre. Africa: Unity, Sovereignty, and Sorrow. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2009.
Englebert, Pierre, and Rebecca Hummel. “Let’s Stick Together: Understanding Africa’s Secessionist Deficit.” African Affairs 104, no. 416 (2005): 399–427.
Erlikh, Hagai. The Struggle over Eritrea, 1962–1978: War and Revolution in the Horn of Africa. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1983.
Eze, James.“Biafra: Enugu police arrest 15 MASSOB members.” Premium Times, 22 May 2018. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/regional/ssouth-east/269353-biafra-enugu-police-arrest-15-massob-members.html.
Farah, Ahmed Y., and Ioan M. Lewis. “Making Peace in Somaliland.” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 37, no. 146 (1997): 349–77.
Findlay, Trevor. The Blue Helmets’ First War? Use of Force by the UN in the Congo, 1960–64. Cornwallis Park, NS: Canadian Peacekeeping Press, 1999.
Forrest, Joshua B. Subnationalism in Africa: Ethnicity, Alliances, and Politics. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004.
Forsyth, Frederick. The Biafra Story. Baltimore: Penguin, 1969.
——— . Emeka. Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum, 1992.
Franke, Richard W. “Tuareg of West Africa: Five Experiments in Fourth World Development.” Antipode 16, no. 2 (1984): 45–53.
George, Edward. The Cuban Intervention in Angola, 1965–1991: From Che Guevara to Cuito Cuanavale. New York: Routledge, 2012.
Gérard-Libois, Jules. Katanga Secession. Translated by Rebecca Young. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966.
Giap, Vo Nguyên. People’s War, People’s Army. New York: Bantam, 1962.
Gibbs, David N. “Dag Hammarskjöld, the United Nations, and the Congo Crisis of 1960-1: A Reinterpretation.” Journal of Modern African Studies 31, no. 1 (1993): 163–74.
——— . “The United Nations, International Peacekeeping and the Question of ‘Impartiality’: Revisiting the Congo Operation of 1960.” Journal of Modern African Studies 38, no. 3 (2000): 359–82.
Gilkes, Patrick. “Somalia: Conflicts within and against the Military Regime.” Review of African Political Economy 16, no. 44 (1989): 53–58.
Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeevich. Perestroika: New Thinking for Our Country and the World. Norwalk, CT: Easton Press, 1996.
Gordon, David F., David C. Miller Jr., and David Wolpe. The United States and Africa: A Post–Cold War Perspective. New York: W. W. Norton, 1998.
Grant, J. Andrew, ed. The New Regionalism in Africa. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2003.
Griffin, Christopher. “French Military Policy in the Nigerian Civil War, 1967–1970.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 26, no. 1 (2015): 114–35.
Grundy, Kenneth W. Guerrilla Struggle in Africa: An Analysis and Preview. New York: Grossman, 1971.
Guevara, Che. Guerrilla Warfare. New York: Praeger, 1970.
Hailu, Solomon. “A New Start for African Security.” International Journal on World Peace 26, no. 4 (2009): 63–73.
Hale, Henry E. “The Parade of Sovereignties: Testing Theories of Secession in the Soviet Setting.” British Journal of Political Science 30, no. 1 (2000): 31–56.
Han, Suyin. The Morning Deluge: Mao Tsetung and the Chinese Revolution. St. Albans, UK: Panther, 1976.
Hansen, Stig Jarle. Al-Shabaab in Somalia: The History and Ideology of a Militant Islamist Group. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016.
Hashim, Alice Bettis. The Fallen State: Dissonance, Dictatorship, and Death in Somalia. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1997.
Haywood, A., and F. A. S. Clarke. The History of the Royal West African Frontier Force. Aldershot, UK: Gale & Polden, 1964.
Henriksen, Thomas H. “People’s War in Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau.” Journal of Modern African Studies 14, no. 3 (1976): 377–99.
Hopkins, A. G. Global History: Interactions between the Universal and the Local. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
Horowitz, Donald L. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Updated ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
——— . “Patterns of Ethnic Separatism.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 23, no. 2 (1981): 165–95.
Hoskyns, Catherine. The Congo Since Independence: January 1960 –December 1961. New York: Oxford University Press, 1965.
Houser, George M. No One Can Stop the Rain: Glimpses of Africa’s Liberation Struggle. New York: Pilgrim, 1989.
Hughes, Matthew. The Central African Federation, Katanga and the Congo Crisis, 1958–65. Salford: European Studies Research Institute, University of Salford, 2003.
Ibrahim, Jibrin. “Political Exclusion, Democratization and Dynamics of Ethnicity in Niger.” Africa Today 41, no. 3 (1994): 15–39.
——— . “Political Transition, Ethnoregionalism, and the ‘Power Shift’ Debate in Nigeria.” Issue: A Journal of Opinion 27, no. 1 (1999): 12–16.
Ijalaye, David A. “Was ‘Biafra’ at Any Time A State in International Law?” American Journal of International Law 65, no. 3 (1971): 551–59.
International Crisis Group. “Negotiating a Blueprint for Peace in Somalia.” International Crisis Group, 2003. http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/africa/horn-of-africa/somalia/059-negotiating-a-blueprint-for-peace-in-somalia.aspx.
——— . “Somaliland: Democratisation and Its Discontents.” International Crisis Group, 2003. http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/africa/horn-of-africa/somalia/066-somaliland-democratisation-and-its-discontents.aspx.
Islam, M. Rafiqul. “Secessionist Self-Determination: Some Lessons from Katanga, Biafra and Bangladesh.” Journal of Peace Research 22, no. 3 (1985): 211–21.
Johnson, Douglas H. The Root Causes of Sudan’s Civil Wars. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003.
——— . “The Sudan People’s Liberation Army and the Problem of Factionalism.” In Clapham, ed., African Guerrillas, 53–72.
Johnson, Hilde F. Waging Peace in Sudan: The Inside Story of the Negotiations That Ended Africa’s Longest Civil War. Eastbourne, UK: Sussex Academic Press, 2011.
Johnson, Michael, and Trish Johnson. “Eritrea: The National Question and the Logic of Protracted Struggle.” African Affairs 80, no. 319 (1981): 181–95.
Jok, Jok Madut. Sudan: Race, Religion and Violence. Oxford: Oneworld, 2007.
Jok, Jok Madut, and Sharon Elaine Hutchinson. “Sudan’s Prolonged Second Civil War and the Militarization of Nuer and Dinka Ethnic Identities.” African Studies Review 42, no. 2 (1999): 125–45.
Jørgenson, Thomas. “Sovereignty of States in The Post–Cold War Era: Implications for Sub-Saharan Africa.” Scientia Militaria – South African Journal of Military Studies 32, no. 1 (2004): 96–119.
Kalb, Madeleine G. The Congo Cables: The Cold War in Africa from Eisenhower to Kennedy. New York: Macmillan, 1982.
Kamanu, Onyeonoro S. “Secession and the Right of Self-Determination: An O.A.U. Dilemma.” Journal of Modern African Studies 12, no. 3 (1974): 355–76.
Kapteijns, Lidwien. Clan Cleansing in Somalia: The Ruinous Legacy of 1991. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012.
Keating, Joshua. “When Is a Nation Not a Nation? Somaliland’s Dream of Independence.” The Guardian, 20 July 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/jul/20/when-is-a-nation-not-a-nation-somalilands-dream-of-independence.
Keenan, Jeremy. “Terror in the Sahara: The Implications of US Imperialism for North & West Africa.” Review of African Political Economy 31, no. 101 (2004): 475–96.
——— . “Turning the Sahel on Its Head: The ‘Truth’ behind the Headlines.” Review of African Political Economy 33, no. 110 (2006): 761–69.
——— . “Uranium Goes Critical in Niger: Tuareg RebellionsThreaten Sahelian Conflagration.” Review of African Political Economy 35, no. 117 (2008): 449–66.
——— .“US Militarization in Africa: What Anthropologists Should Know about AFRICOM.” Anthropology Today 24, no. 5 (2008): 16–20.
Keita, Kalifa. “Conflict and Conflict Resolution in the Sahel: The Tuareg Insurgency in Mali.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 9, no. 3 (1998): 102–28.
Kennes, Erik, and Miles Larmer. The Katangese Gendarmes and War in Central Africa: Fighting Their Way Home. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2016.
Khadiagala, Gilbert M. Allies in Adversity: The Frontline States in Southern African Security, 1975–1993. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2007.
Khālid, Manṣūr. War and Peace in Sudan: A Tale of Two Countries. London: Kegan Paul, 2003.
Kisangani, Emizet F. “The Tuaregs’ Rebellions in Mali and Niger and the U.S. Global War on Terror.” International Journal on World Peace 29, no. 1 (2012): 59–97.
Kohl, Ines. “Modern Nomads, Vagabonds, or Cosmopolitans? Reflections on Contemporary Tuareg Society.” Journal of Anthropological Research 66, no. 4 (2010): 449–62.
Krings, Thomas. “Marginalisation and Revolt among the Tuareg in Mali and Niger.” GeoJournal 36, no. 1 (1995): 57–63.
Laremont, Ricardo René. “Borders, States, and Nationalism.” In Borders, Nationalism, and the African State, edited by Ricardo René Laremont, 1–31. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2005.
Lecocq, Baz. “The Bellah Question: Slave Emancipation, Race, and Social Categories in Late Twentieth-Century Northern Mali.” Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne Des Études Africaines 39, no. 1 (2005): 42–68.
——— . Disputed Desert: Decolonisation, Competing Nationalisms and Tuareg Rebellions in Northern Mali. Boston: Brill, 2010.
——— . “Unemployed Intellectuals in the Sahara: The Teshumara Nationalist Movement and the Revolutions in Tuareg Society.” Supplement, International Review of Social History 49, no. S12 (2004): 87–109.
Lecocq, Baz, and Georg Klute. “Tuareg Separatism in Mali.” International Journal: Canada’s Journal of Global Policy Analysis 68, no. 3 (2013): 424–34.
Lefebvre, Jeffrey A. Arms for the Horn: U.S. Security Policy in Ethiopia and Somalia, 1953–1991. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992.
——— . “Iran in the Horn of Africa: Outflanking U.S. Allies.” Middle East Policy 19, no. 2 (2012): 117–33.
Lefever, Ernest W., and Wynfred Joshua. United Nations Peacekeeping in the Congo, 1960–1964: An Analysis of Political, Executive and Military Control, vol. 2: Full Text. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1966.
Legum, Colin, and Bill Lee. Conflict in the Horn of Africa. New York: Africana, 1977.
Lemarchand, Rene. “The Limits of Self-Determination: The Case of the Katanga Secession.” American Political Science Review 56, no. 2 (1962): 404–16.
LeRiche, Matthew, and Matthew B. Arnold. South Sudan: From Revolution to Independence. London: Hurst, 2012.
Lewis, I. M. Making and Breaking States in Africa: The Somali Experience. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 2010.
——— . The Modern History of Somaliland: From Nation to State. New York: Praeger, 1965.
Lugard, F. J. D. The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa. 5th ed. London: F. Cass, 1965.
Lumumba, Patrice. Lumumba Speaks: The Speeches and Writings 1958–1961. Boston: Little, Brown, 1972.
Lusk, Gill. “Democracy and Liberation Movements: The Case of the SPLA.” Middle East Report, no. 174 (Jan.–Feb. 1992): 30–31.
Lyons, T. “Post–Cold War U.S. Policy toward Africa.” Brookings Review 10, no. 1 (1992): 32.
Machiavelli, Niccolò. The Prince. Translated by Luigi Ricci. New York: Signet Classics, 1999.
Mao Tse-tung. Mao Tse-Tung on Revolution and War. Edited by M. Rejai. Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1970.
Markakis, John. National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Martin, David, and Phyllis Johnson. The Struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga War. London: Faber & Faber, 1982.
McGroarty, Patrick. “South Sudan’s Kiir Says Uganda Helping to Fight Rebels.” Wall Street Journal, 16 January 2014. https://www.wsj.com/articles/south-sudan8217s-kiir-says-uganda-helping-to-fight-rebels-1389876829.
Metz, Helen Chapin. Somalia: A Country Study. Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1993.
Migdal, Joel S. Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988.
Mlambo, Alois S. A History of Zimbabwe. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
Mockler, Antony. The Mercenaries. Sugarland, TX: Free Companion Press, 1981.
Moorcraft, Paul L., and Peter McLaughlin. The Rhodesian War: A Military History. South Yorkshire, UK: Pen & Sword Military, 2015.
Moyse-Barlett, Lt. Col. H. The King’s African Rifles: A Study in the Military History of East and Central Africa, 1890–1945. Uckfield, UK: Naval & Military Press, 2016.
Museveni, Yoweri. “The Strategy of Protracted People’s War: Uganda.” Military Review 88, no. 6 (2008): 4–13.
Myers, Nathaniel. “Africa’s North Korea.” Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2010/06/15/africas-north-korea/.
Niven, Rex, Sir. The War of Nigerian Unity, 1967–1970. London: Evans Brothers, 1971.
Obasanjo, Olusegun. My Command: An Account of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967–1970. London: Heineman, 1981.
O’Brien, Conor Cruise. To Katanga and Back: A UN Case History. New York: Faber & Faber, 2015.
Ojukwu, C. O. Biafra: Selected Speeches with Journals of Events. New York: Harper & Row, 1969.
Onipede, O. “Nigeria Crisis.” Africa Quarterly 9, no. 3 (1969): 233–63.
Othen, Christopher. Katanga 1960–63: Mercenaries, Spies and the African Nation that Waged War on the World. Stroud, UK: The History Press, 2018.
Parsons, Timothy. The African Rank and File: Social Implications of Colonial Service in the King’s African Rifles. Oxford: James Currey, 1999.
Poggo, Scopas Sekwat. The First Sudanese Civil War: Africans, Arabs, and Israelis in the Southern Sudan, 1955–1972. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
Pool, David. From Guerrillas to Government: The Eritrean People’s Liberation Front. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2001.
Prunier, Gérard. “Rebel Movements and Proxy Warfare: Uganda, Sudan and the Congo (1986–99).” African Affairs 103, no. 412 (2004): 359–83.
Rabasa, Angel, et al. “The Tuareg Insurgency in Mali, 2006-2009.” In From Insurgency to Stability, vol. 2: Insights from Selected Case Studies, edited by Angel Rabasa et al., 117–56. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2011.
Rasmussen, Susan. “Disputed Boundaries: Tuareg Discourse on Class and Ethnicity.” Ethnology 31, no. 4 (1992): 351–65.
——— . “Ritual Specialists, Ambiguity and Power in Tuareg Society.” Man 27, no. 1 (1992): 105–28.
Reid, Richard. “The Challenge of the Past: The Quest for Historical Legitimacy in Independent Eritrea.” History in Africa 28 (2001): 239–72.
Renders, Marleen. “Appropriate ‘Governance-Technology’? – Somali Clan Elders and Institutions in the Making of the ‘Republic of Somaliland.’” Africa Spectrum 42, no. 3 (2007): 439–59.
Reno, William. Warlord Politics and African States. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1999.
Reynolds, Jonathan T. Sovereignty and Struggle: Africa and Africans in the Era of the Cold War, 1945–1994. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.
Rolandsen, Øystein H. “The Making of the Anya-Nya Insurgency in the Southern Sudan, 1961–64.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 5, no. 2 (2011): 211–32.
Samatar, Said. “The Islamic Courts and Ethiopia’s Intervention in Somali: Redemption or Adventurism?” Chatham House, 25 April 2007. https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Africa/250407samatar.pdf.
——— . Somalia: A Nation in Turmoil. London: Minority Rights Group, 1991.
Sangmpam, S. N. “Neither Soft nor Dead: The African State Is Alive and Well.” African Studies Review 36, no. 2 (1993): 73–94.
Saxena, J. N. Self-Determination: From to Biafra to Bangladesh. Delhi: University of Delhi, 1978.
Schmidt, Elizabeth. Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
Schraeder, Peter J. “From Irredentism to Secession: the Decline of Pan–Somali Nationalism.” In After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States, edited by Lowell W. Barrington, 107–40. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006.
Scott, Philippa. “The Sudan Peoples’ Liberation Movement (SPLM) and Liberation Army (SPLA).” Review of African Political Economy 12, no. 33 (1985): 69–82.
Seely, Jennifer C. “A Political Analysis of Decentralisation: Coopting the Tuareg Threat in Mali.” Journal of Modern African Studies 39, no. 3 (2001): 499–524.
Seligman, Thomas K. “Art of Being Tuareg Sahara Nomads in a Modern World.” African Arts 39, no. 3 (2006): 56–79.
Sherman, Richard. Eritrea: The Unfinished Revolution. New York: Praeger, 1980.
Shurkin, Michael. France’s War in Mali: Lessons for an Expeditionary Army. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2014.
Spears, Ian S. “Reflections on Somaliland & Africa’s Territorial Order.” Review of African Political Economy 30, no. 95 (2003): 89–98.
Stapleton, Timothy J. A Military History of South Africa: From the Dutch-Khoi Wars to the End of Apartheid. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010.
Starratt, Priscilla Ellen. “Tuareg Slavery and Slave Trade.” Slavery & Abolition 2, no. 2 (1981): 83–113.
Stearns, Jason K. Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa. New York: PublicAffairs, 2012.
Steiner, Rolf, and Yves-Guy Bergès. The Last Adventurer. Boston: Little, Brown, 1978.
Straus, Scott. Making and Unmaking Nations: War, Leadership, and Genocide in Modern Africa. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2015.
Sudan Tribune. “South Sudan Liberation Movement/Army.” http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?mot355.
——— . “South Sudan Democratic Movement, Army.” http://www.sudantribune.com/+-SSDM-A-South-Sudan-Democratic,483-+.
Takeuchi, Shin’ichi. “Political Liberalization or Armed Conflicts? Political Changes in Post–Cold War Africa.” The Developing Economies 45, no. 2 (2007): 172–93.
Tareke, Gebru. The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009.
Taylor, Ian. The International Relations of Sub-Saharan Africa. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2010.
Tekle, Amare. Eritrea and Ethiopia: from Conflict to Cooperation. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1994.
Thomas, Gerry S. Mercenary Troops in Modern Africa. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1985.
Thompson, Joseph E. American Policy and African Famine: The Nigeria-Biafra War, 1966–1970. New York: Greenwood, 1990.
Trevaskis, G. K. N. A Colony in Transition: 1941–52. London: Oxford University Press, 1960.
Van der Waag, Ian. A Military History of Modern South Africa. Philadelphia: Casemate, 2018.
Vries, Lotje de, Pierre Englebert, and Mareike Schomerus, eds. Secessionism in African Politics: Aspiration, Grievance, Performance, Disenchantment. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
Wai, Dunstan M. The African-Arab Conflict in the Sudan. New York: Africana, 1981.
Walls, Michael. “The Emergence of a Somali State: Building Peace from Civil War in Somaliland.” African Affairs 108, no. 432 (2009): 371–89.
Warner, Lesley Anne. The Trans Sahara Counter Terrorism Partnership: Building Partner Capacity to Counter Terror and Violent Extremism. Washington DC: Center for Complex Operations, 2014.
Weissman, Stephen R. American Foreign Policy in the Congo, 1960–1964. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974.
White, Philip L. “Globalization and the Mythology of the ‘Nation State.’” In Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local, edited by A. G. Hopkins, 257–84. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
Williams, Susan. Who Killed Hammarskjöld?: The UN, the Cold War and White Supremacy in Africa. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Wilson, Henry S. African Decolonization. London: Hodder Education, 1994.
Wood, David. The Armed Forces of African States. London: Institute for Strategic Studies, 1966.
Woodward, Peter. Crisis in the Horn of Africa: Politics, Piracy and the Threat of Terror. London: I.B. Tauris, 2013.
——— . Sudan, 1898–1989: The Unstable State. Boulder, CO: L. Rienner, 1990.
Young, John. Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia: The Tigray People’s Liberation Front, 1975–1991. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
——— . “Sudan: Liberation Movements, Regional Armies, Ethnic Militias & Peace.” Review of African Political Economy 30, no. 97 (2003): 423–34.
——— . “The Tigray and Eritrean Peoples Liberation Fronts: A History of Tensions and Pragmatism.” Journal of Modern African Studies 34, no. 1 (1996): 105–20.