Table of Contents

Acknowledgements

Foreword

Executive Summary

Table of Contents

Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1 Mountains and Mountain Knowledge in Canada

1.2 Introducing the Canadian Mountain Assessment

1.2.1 Project governance

1.2.2 Visioning

1.2.3 Methodology

1.2.4 Review and revision process

1.2.5 Innovations

1.2.6 Caveats and limitations

1.3 Organisation of Assessment

Glossary

References

Chapter 2. Mountain Environments

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Origins

2.2.1 Plate tectonics: The driving mechanism for mountain building

2.2.2 Ancient orogens of eastern Canada

2.2.3 Younger orogens of western Canada

2.2.4 Ice sheet histories, landscape sculpting, and deglaciation

2.2.5 Gaps and challenges

2.3 Weather and Climate

2.3.1 Air temperature

2.3.2 Precipitation

2.3.3 Mountain wind systems

2.3.4 Gaps and challenges

2.4 Snow, Ice, and Permafrost

2.4.1 Mountain snow

2.4.2 Mountain glaciers

2.4.3 Mountain permafrost

2.4.4 Gaps and challenges

2.5 Water

2.5.1 Mountain flow regimes

2.5.2 Mountain surface hydrological processes

2.5.3 Mountain lakes and reservoirs

2.5.4 Mountain groundwater

2.5.5 Mountain wetlands

2.5.6 Mountain water quality

2.5.7 Hydrological modelling

2.5.8 Gaps and challenges

2.6 Mountain Hazards

2.6.1 Indigenous perspectives on mountain hazards

2.6.2 Hazard types and frequency

2.6.3 Gaps and challenges

2.7 Ecosystems and Biodiversity

2.7.1 Terrestrial mountain ecosystems

2.7.2 Landscape management and disturbances

2.7.3 Mountain biodiversity

2.7.4 Aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity

2.7.5 Gaps and challenges

2.8 Connections between Mountains and Lowland/Coastal Environments

2.8.1 Upstream movements of air, water, materials and organisms

2.8.2 Downstream movements of air, water, materials and organisms

2.8.3 Gaps and challenges

2.9 Conclusions

Glossary

References

Chapter 3. Mountains as Homelands

3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 Homelands and homes

3.1.2 Conceptual underpinnings

3.2 Stories of Homelands

3.2.1 Stories of creation

3.2.2 Stories of mountain spirits

3.2.3 Mountain place names

3.2.4 Summary

3.3 Mountain Archaeology and the Longevity of Homelands

3.4 Multispecies Literature

3.4.1 Human-animal relationships in mountains

3.4.2 Human-plant relationships in mountains

3.5 Changes to Mountain Homelands

3.5.1 Early colonial presence

3.5.2 Science as colonial tool

3.5.3 Treaties and land access

3.5.4 Parks and protected areas

3.6 Recreation

3.6.1 Place-making through recreation

3.6.2 Recreation and gender

3.6.3 Race and recreation

3.7 Labour

3.7.1 Extraction labour

3.7.2 Incarcerated labour in mountains

3.7.3 Military labour

3.7.4 Built infrastructures

3.7.5 Mountain professionals

3.8 Governance in Contemporary Mountain Spaces

3.8.1 Mountains as borderlands

3.8.2 Indigenous governance in mountain places

3.9 Conclusion

Glossary

References

Chapter 4. Gifts of the Mountains

4.1 Introduction

4.1.1 Gifts and benefits

4.2 Gifts of Identity and Wellbeing

4.2.1 Emotional and physical wellbeing of mountain communities

4.3 Gifts of Art

4.3.1 Mountains as sites of creative inspiration and dialogue

4.3.2 Mountains as sites of art institutions and programs

4.4 Gifts of Teaching and Pedagogy

4.4.1 Storytelling and narrative

4.4.2 Sacredness

4.4.3 Land-based learning and healing

4.4.4 Challenges to Indigenous-led teaching and learning in Canada

4.5 Gifts of Foods and Medicines

4.5.1 Plants, fungi, and medicinal species

4.5.2 Wildlife

4.5.3 Fisheries

4.6 Gifts of Water

4.6.1 Gifts of freshwater

4.6.2 Gifts of wetlands

4.7 Gift of Mountain Spaces and Terrain for Tourism and Recreation Activities

4.7.1 Nature and adventure tourism economies

4.7.2 Challenges and drawbacks of mountain recreation

4.8 Gifts and Benefits of Forests, Materials, and Energy Sources

4.8.1 Forests

4.8.2 Minerals and hydrocarbons

4.8.3 Sedimentary deposits and quarries

4.8.4 Metallic mineral deposits

4.8.5 Fossil fuel deposits

4.8.6 Renewable energy

4.9 Conclusions

Glossary

References

Chapter 5. Mountains Under Pressure

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Climate Change: Historical Trends and Future Projections

5.2.1 Historical temperature trends

5.2.2 Historical precipitation trends

5.2.3 Caveats and research gaps

5.2.4 Future climate projections

5.2.5 Caveats and research gaps

5.3 Land Cover and Land Use Pressures

5.3.1 Changes in land cover

5.3.2 Changes in land use

5.3.3 Demographic changes

5.4 Resource Development Pressures

5.4.1 Resource extraction and development

5.4.2 Logging pressures

5.4.3 Mining and fossil fuel pressures

5.4.4 Invasive species

5.5 Growing Pressures from Mountain Tourism and Recreation

5.6 Changes in the Governance of Mountain Spaces

Emerging Threats and Impacts on Mountain Systems

5.7 Threats and Impacts from a Changing Cryosphere

5.7.1 Changes in snowpack

5.7.2 Changes to glaciers

5.7.3 Changes in permafrost

5.8 Threats and Impacts from Changing Water Resources

5.8.1 Changes in water supply

5.8.2 Water quality

5.9 Risks and Vulnerability from Changing Mountain Hazards

5.10 Threats and Impacts on Ecosystems

5.10.1 Changes in treeline and shrubification

5.10.2 Changes in stream ecosystems

5.10.3 Changes in mountain wetlands

5.10.4 Changes in wildlife, human, and more-than-human relations

5.11 Impacts on Socio-Cultural Systems

5.11.1 Threats to Indigenous livelihoods and knowledge systems

5.11.2 Threats to community health and wellbeing

5.11.3 Threats to mountain tourism and recreation

5.12 Adaptation to Changing Pressures

5.13 Conclusions

Glossary

References

Chapter 6. Desirable Mountain Futures

6.1 Connectivity

6.2 Elevating Indigenous Knowledges

6.3 Access and Barriers to Relationships

6.4 Humility

6.5 Endings as Beginnings

References

Appendix I: Contributor Bios

Appendix II: Learning Circle Contributions

Appendix III: Map Data