10Addressing Discrimination Against Minority Groups in Social Work Practice and Field Education

Saleema Salim

We live in a globalized world that promotes human coexistence yet continues to be driven by conflict. Minority groups experience difficulties due to discriminatory factors such as physical and mental abilities; age; culture; sexuality, gender identity and sexual orientation; race; ethnicity; language; religion and spiritual beliefs; political opinions; socio-economic status; poverty; class; family structure; relationship status; and nationality (or lack thereof). Our responsibility as social workers is to recognize how ideology, laws, policies, regulations, customs, and practices can lead to inequalities and prevent people of certain backgrounds from receiving equitable treatment. It is essential that social workers address institutionalized discrimination and oppression against minority groups in their practice by focusing on ethical imperatives because the profession has an obligation to challenge and dismantle systems of oppression that perpetuate inequality and injustice. By actively addressing institutionalized discrimination, social workers uphold the core values of the profession, including social justice and respect for dignity. The skills needed to do this are often learned in field education.

Respect for human individuality and the richness of diversity entails being compassionate, empathetic, caring, and striving to improve the well-being of minority groups. As expressed by Roy Henry Vickers, a First Nations artist of Tsimshian descent, we all possess unique talents, and when we come together to share and exchange these gifts, our collective wealth grows. Cultural competence is considered an important component of respecting others because it requires respecting the dignity of all people in a fair and equitable manner—this is in line with the principles of social work. According to Este (2007), cultural competence is defined as accepting and respecting differences, continuing self-assessment, carefully observing the dynamics of differences, expanding knowledge and resources, and adapting services to meet the needs of diverse populations. To demonstrate cultural competency, social workers should “ensure that their work does not reflect personal or organizational biases or prejudices” (Fisher, 2013, p. 60). As the Canadian Association of Social Workers (CASW; 2005) states, “Social workers have a responsibility to maintain professional proficiency, to continually strive to increase their professional knowledge and skills, and to apply new knowledge in practice” (p. 5). Unfortunately, there remains a lack of cultural competency among social workers serving diverse groups of people (Este, 2007).

In this chapter, we explore minority groups’ experiences of discrimination that can have a negative impact on their social and psychological well-being. In this chapter, you will learn about different types of discrimination and the ways discrimination against minority groups is located in social work practice and field education. Tips and strategies for addressing and overcoming discrimination are provided.

Discrimination

The Canadian Human Rights Commission defines discrimination as any action or decision that treats a person or a group unfairly because of their race, age, or disability (Canadian Human Rights Commission, n.d.) Helly (2004) identifies several types of discrimination, such as direct discrimination, institutionalized discrimination, indirect discrimination, usual discrimination, and systemic discrimination, that can occur against minority groups. The details of the types of discrimination are presented in the following section.

Direct discrimination occurs when members of a minority group are denied a right or a freedom. This manifests in many ways. For example, in Canada, 1,798 hate crimes against various minority groups were reported to the police in 2018 (Moreau, 2020). Moreover, over 47% of hate crimes between 2010 and 2013 against Muslims targeted Muslim women who wore the hijab or niqab (Statistics Canada, 2013).

Oxford defines institutional racism as extending beyond government: “Institutional racism is described as discrimination or unequal treatment based on membership in a particular ethnic group (typically one that is a minority or marginalized), arising from systems, structures, or expectations established within an institution or organization.” (Oxford, n.d.). This concept encompasses various institutions such as universities, social work organizations, and others. Institutionalized discrimination occurs when a minority group is purposefully excluded through the use of governmental laws and regulations because of their cultural identity (Poynting & Perry, 2007). For example, during the 2015 Canadian general election, Stephen Harper stated that, if re-elected, his government would consider banning the niqab for public employees (Niqab Ban, 2015). The Harper government had previously attempted to prohibit the wearing of niqabs during Canadian citizenship ceremonies. The niqab is a type of face covering worn by some Muslim women. Quebec’s government went even further in 2013 by proposing the Charter of Quebec Values, which would have prohibited public employees from wearing or displaying religious symbols (Niqab Ban, 2015). While bans of this type purport to treat all Canadians equally, they are inequitable because they promote the religion of one group of Canadians in major institutions while excluding the culture of others. If the Canadian ban were to be enacted, Muslim women in Canada who wear niqabs as part of their cultural practice would be forced to give up this aspect of their identity in order to participate in society.

Indirect discrimination occurs when an unequal effect is produced for a minority group by a measure put in place for people in general (Waddington & Heniks, 2002). A frequent example of indirect discrimination is when a university’s academic calendar requires all students to attend classes or take exams on those days when people from minority groups celebrate their festivals. This privileges one group’s celebrations over those of another. For example, the festival of the Eid among Muslim groups is as significant as Christmas for Christian groups, although only Christmas is officially recognized. As such, Muslim students are often required to attend classes, appear for exams, or attend evening classes during the month of Ramadan instead of celebrating their festivals. Minority groups often sacrifice their way of life because of the absence of accommodations. This is a form of indirect religious discrimination.

Resource: Watch Video 10.1 and 10.2, which demonstrate how minority groups are discriminated against in Western countries based on their religious beliefs. The videos are about the European Union (EU) and Quebec bans on religious symbols. These videos illustrate how Muslim women were restricted from working by a ban on religious symbols imposed by legislation. While these policies do not indicate the name of a specific group, it shows that this policy is for everyone. However, the videos show which groups of people benefit from such policies and which groups face difficulties. Usual discrimination relates to negative attitudes and behaviours toward a minority group among individuals and private organizations (Helly, 2004). For example, a landlord might have leasing rules that make renting a home unreasonably difficult for new immigrants. This may be a case of discrimination based on both race and national origin. Another example is racial profiling, which occurs, for example, when airport security personnel unfairly scrutinize Muslim minority groups due to their religious identity or race.

Video 10.1

Video 10.2

Systemic discrimination refers to the policies and practices embedded within an organization’s structure that create or perpetuate social exclusion and disadvantage for certain groups of people (Sheppard, 2010). They appear to be neutral on the surface but may discriminate against persons based on race, ethnicity, or religion, among other factors. It impacts the general population of minority groups through conscious or unconscious bias in proposed policies, programs, and decisions.

Unconscious bias occurs when people make conclusions based on generalizations and preconceived ideas rather than on objective measures. In other words, unconscious bias is “the attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner. These biases, which encompass both favourable and unfavourable assessments, are activated involuntarily and without an individual’s awareness or intentional control” (Tyner, 2019, p. 31). Sometimes systemic discrimination is intentional, such as when Muslim girls are expelled from school because they wear a hijab or bans are placed on niqabs at citizenship ceremonies (Golnaraghi & Mills, 2013).

Online Training Activity

To learn more about unconscious bias, you may wish to strengthen your ability to recognize and describe bias, and further understand the methods for mitigating the influence of bias that are relevant to health and social services through this online training module (see CIHR’s Bias in Peer Review module, n.d.)

The majority of discrimination types remain invisible to the general population. Typically, discrimination becomes apparent only to those individuals who experience it. Many minority groups are conscious of specific types of discrimination directly aimed at them. Moreover, many people fail to comprehend that discrimination often occurs unintentionally, meaning that individuals may not actively intend to discriminate against others, but it still happens nonetheless. Discrimination can be deeply ingrained in societal norms, attitudes, and systems, which may lead to biased behaviors or decisions even without conscious awareness. An important component of understanding discrimination is recognizing that it can occur between different groups. Groups may not see discrimination that happens to other groups, leading to a lack of awareness or acknowledgment of the problem. This intergroup discrimination can perpetuate inequalities and divisions within society.

Additionally, discrimination between groups is something that new social workers might not understand or know is a problem. Without awareness of these dynamics, social workers may struggle to effectively address discrimination and advocate for marginalized communities in their practice. The impacts of discrimination are experienced on a personal level such as negative consequences for their mental and sometimes physical health (Fernando et al., 2013; Pascoe & Richman, 2009). Many minority groups report experiencing discrimination in Western countries. This includes intentional avoidance, encountering ignorance, being called degrading names, or being unfairly scrutinized by security personnel or police because of their ethnic, cultural, or religious identity (Nagra & Maurutto, 2016; Pasha-Zaidi, 2015).

Diversity and Discrimination

Canada is a multicultural country where people of diverse cultural backgrounds and races generally live together peacefully. Every year, thousands of people immigrate to Canada with the belief that their culture will be honoured. Unfortunately, Reitz and Bannerjee (2006) found that visible minorities in Canada experience much greater levels of discrimination and inequality than immigrants of European origin.

The word “respect” comes from a Latin root that suggests the idea of seeing or viewing (Egan, 2014). One of the core values of social work is respect for clients, which forms the foundation of all helpful interventions (Egan, 2014). As per the CASW (2024) Code of Ethics, “social workers enhance their relationship with diverse service users by engaging in ongoing learning related to cultures, beliefs and practices and respecting their rights to receive services free of bias or judgement” (p. 8) regardless of any differences, such as age, culture, abilities, sexuality and gender identity, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, language, religion, spiritual beliefs, political opinions, socio-economic status, poverty, class, family structure, relationship status and nationality. Unfortunately, this is not always seen in practice or in field education settings. Due to a lack of knowledge about minority cultures, social workers often fail to maintain attitudes of respect for other cultures in their practicums and practice (Jani et al., 2016).

Table 10.1: Questions to Understand Yourself

Respect for others begins with an understanding of oneself. As outlined in Table 10.1, you may ask yourself questions to gain a deeper understanding of yourself.

The questions about identity will help you gain a deeper understanding of yourself and how your identities might affect your interactions with others. Social workers are responsible for respecting the cultures of diverse minorities. Cultural respect does not simply mean accepting differences it requires us to embrace human differences. In order to develop respect for the cultures of diverse minorities, we need a solid understanding, empathy, intellectual curiosity, and a willingness to engage in an open and honest manner. In addition, we need to develop the capacity within ourselves for compromise, an appropriate degree of humility, and a genuine effort to welcome human differences. The absence of these capacities means that diverse minorities face discrimination in many Western societies, including Canada. Students can use the questions in Table 10.2 to gain an understanding of their knowledge and gaps related to respecting diverse cultures.

Experiences of Discrimination Among Minority Groups in Social Work Practice and Field Education in Canada

Cenat et al. (2022) examined the prevalence of racial discrimination and major racial discrimination experienced by Black Canadians between the ages of 15 and 40. The study found that the majority of people in this group have experienced racial discrimination daily. Additionally, nearly half of the participants reported experiencing major forms of racial discrimination, including in employment, policing, education, housing, banking, and healthcare.

Social work practitioners also experience discrimination in their social work practice. Lilly et al. (2018) report that Black social work students experience microaggressions on a frequent basis. Black practitioners, for example, report disturbed sleep; fatigue; loss of energy; significant weight loss or gain; feelings of worthlessness; recurrent thoughts of death, including suicidal ideation; restlessness; irritability; muscle tension; excessive worry; hypervigilance; and avoidance as a result of microaggressions (Brown, 2020). This suggests that racism against Black social workers may be particularly challenging, given the intersectionality of race and professional identity.

In Weinberg and Fine’s (2022) study of social workers in Ontario and Nova Scotia, many participants reported instances where clients refused to accept a racialized social worker as their practitioner. For example, a Black practitioner recalled an incident in which a client stated they did not want Black girls to take care of them. A child welfare worker explained that when clients were in conflict with her, they immediately used racial comments or connotations to say they did not wish to work with her.

Weinberg and Fine (2022) found that institutional racism prevents professionals from enjoying the same employment opportunities as those belonging to non-racialized groups. For example, they found that a number of participants expressed difficulties in finding work. As the example, one participant indicated that she was Indigenous in her cover letter and applied as a social worker to a child welfare agency five times. Each time, she was told that they did not need anyone or that she did not meet the job qualifications. She subsequently applied for the position without declaring her Indigenous identity and was invited for an interview.

Several Muslim social work female students also reported facing systemic and racial discrimination when applying for practicum placements (Salim, 2022). One Muslim participant mentioned that she and a non-Muslim colleague were worried about finding field placements because they lacked Canadian experience. However, her colleague easily obtained a practicum placement. In contrast, the Muslim woman applied to numerous field agencies but was not successful in securing a placement. Upon reflection, she determined that the issue did not relate to her lack of Canadian work or practice experience but rather to systemic and racial discrimination.

Table 10.2: Questions for Respecting Diversity

Practice Example

Please read this case study and respond to the question in Table 10.3.

Table 10.3: Case Study

Table 10.4: Demonstrating Respect for Cultural Differences

Develop Cultural Sensitivity by Overcoming Knowledge Gaps and Empathy Gaps

In social work education, we learn that empathy is an essential component of our practice to address discrimination. The empathetic person works with others within their context (Egan & Reese, 2019) and tries to inhabit the world of the ‘other’. Through empathy, social workers gain a profound understanding of the other person’s world and values (Parrott, 2010). Empathy, in other words, is the capacity to put oneself in another’s situation in order to understand their situation, since our experiences are all different. It is an important aspect of social work practice and part of what it means to be human beyond our practice. Each human being has innate dignity: The foundation of human rights is based on equality and dignity. All humans have the right to be treated with respect regardless of class, race, gender, nationality, culture, sexual orientation, level of education, religion, and other factors. The International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) supports human dignity as a social work value and a human right, which is reflected in social work education, strategies, policies, and research.

Empathy can be hampered without a foundation of knowledge or without a basic grasp of facts about diverse people and their perspectives. For example, the widespread ignorance of the faith, history, and cultural diversity of minority groups in much of the Western world creates a knowledge gap. Often, ignorance manifests itself in stereotypes that can breed intolerance and insensitivity, resulting in conflict. Knowledge gaps among social workers have the potential to lead to empathy gaps. Some social workers in Canada continue to struggle to be empathetic.

Developing empathetic openness and a sense of cultural sensitivity requires a strong intellectual commitment. This commitment can only come from a deep understanding of the subject. Our multicultural society demands that we not only enhance our own knowledge about diverse cultures, but it also requires that we build bridges of knowledge from one culture to the other so that we generate a diverse yet cohesive cultural society. The knowledge of diverse cultures in our society can increase one’s ability to respect those who are different from us and understand cultures that we often ignore. It is not as easy as it sounds. It requires a willingness to study and learn across a wide range of cultures to develop greater cultural sensitivity. However, if we wish to serve a multicultural society as social workers, we must become acquainted with a wide variety of cultures. One way to achieve the commitment of gaining cultural knowledge is to work with diverse minority groups.

Some social work students try to avoid practicum placements that differ from their own cultures. This is unfortunate because a practicum with a minority group can be considered an opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of different cultures; even if one encounters challenges at first, students gradually gain a greater understanding of other people. As a result, students not only enhance their chances of getting more job opportunities, they also improve their knowledge and cultural competency. According to Salim (2022), a significant number of minority social work students indicated that social work students lack an understanding of minority cultures. In contrast to other social work students, those students who had completed a practicum with a minority group were more open-minded and respectful of both their similarities and differences.

Below is a case study of Sarah, a Canadian social work student. Through Sarah’s experiences, we can explore the significance of cultural immersion, interpersonal relationships, and allyship in social work practice. Her deliberate choices in group settings and practicum selection provide valuable insights into fostering inclusivity, empathy, and advocacy for marginalized communities within diverse social contexts.

Please read the case of Sarah’s engagement with minority students and respond to the questions in Table 10.6.

Table 10.5: Case Study

Table 10.6: Reflecting on Your Knowledge about the Culture of Others

Resources

Gaine, C. (2010). Equality and diversity in social work practice. Learning Matters.

The book titled Equality and diversity in social work practice is a great resource for social work students to gain an understanding of equality and diversity in social work practices because several aspects of diversity are explored, including gender, sexual orientation, aging, disability, class, race, ethnicity, faith, and religion.

The International Association of Schools of Social Work. IASSW Vision & Mission Statement

https://archive.iassw-aiets.org/about-iassw/mission-statement/#:~:text=IASSW vision is to promote and develop %E2%80%98Excellence,pursuit of a more just and equitable world%E2%80%99.

It’s essential to familiarize yourselves with the organizations that shape the profession globally. One such pivotal entity is the IASSW. As an international association comprising institutions of social work education, organizations supporting social work education, and dedicated social work educators, the IASSW plays a significant role in advancing the field worldwide. In this link, you will delve into the vision and mission statement of the IASSW, gaining valuable insights into its overarching goals and commitments.

Table 10.7: Reflecting on Your Competency in Demonstrating Respect for Cultural Difference

Diversity Versus Assimilation or Homogenization

As social workers, we must ensure that our actions do not reduce difference to sameness, promote relativism, nor promote exclusion. Instead, we should strive to increase engagement with diverse minority groups. In the face of globalization, cultural identity is fundamental to societies that might otherwise be susceptible to the effects of disorienting change, homogenization, and disintegration.

Treating all people with respect, dignity, and fairness is fundamental to our relationship with the Canadian public and contributes to a safe and healthy work environment that promotes engagement, openness, and transparency. The diversity of people in Canada and of the ideas they generate are the source of our innovation. (Government of Canada, n.d.).

Despite this, there is a conflict between the two concepts: assimilation and pluralism. One concept suggests that immigrants should be assimilated into mainstream culture; that is, they should strive to conform to mainstream Eurocentric society by dropping what makes their cultures and religions unique. The other concept is pluralism, an alternative to assimilation that proposes that society should acknowledge and accept the differences brought by these groups and allow them to coexist alongside mainstream cultures. As social workers, our goal should be to work towards bridging the gap between cultures, balancing the needs of minority and majority groups, and creating inclusive spaces that provide opportunities for diverse minority groups. This effort requires collaboration and advocacy to foster a safe and equitable environment for all. In our role, we should not support the homogenization of diverse minority groups’ practices, beliefs, and cultures. Instead, our roles and actions should demonstrate acceptance, respect, and an effort to understand diverse cultures and their values. The lack of basic knowledge about Muslims, for instance, has led to generalizations, assumes homogeneity, and stereotypes people, which leads to unethical practices (Mahdi & Paul, 2014). If we fail to respect minority cultures and try to homogenize the human race, we risk marginalizing underrepresented groups, which can lead to various forms of oppression, as well as economic and social repression. Indigenous Peoples are one example of this push for assimilation: In the 19th century, the Federal Government of Canada established the Residential School System through legislation. The system included policies that were designed to integrate Indigenous Peoples into settler societies. This system was designed to convert Indigenous children to Christianity while separating them from their traditional cultures based on the notion of the racial, cultural, and spiritual superiority of White settlers. About 150,000 First Nations, Inuit, and Métis children were forcibly removed from their homes and enrolled in residential schools through this system between the 19th and 20th centuries (Brady, 2013). The experiences of students in residential schools have had a long-term negative impact, not only on survivors but also on their extended families and communities. After decades of destruction, we have learned that the policies that were put in place had a negative impact on Indigenous Peoples in Canada.

Table 10.8: Assimilation vs. Inequality

Table 10.9: Resources on How to be Anti-Racist

Summary

Social workers need to understand the importance of multiple identities, subjectivity, and social context in their learning. This requires them to improve the ability and cultural competency to practice effectively with diverse populations (Council on Social Work Education [CSWE], 2022; Jani et al., 2011). Social work education emphasizes cultural competence since it entails having respect and treating individuals fairly. As social workers we demonstrate our commitment to respecting others and adhering to social work values in order to fulfill our professional responsibilities and obligations. We must integrate professional knowledge and values into field practice. Moreover, it is imperative that we foster a desire to explore and connect with individuals from diverse backgrounds, to enrich our understanding of ourselves, and to learn from others. In this chapter, we learned about diversity and the discrimination experienced by minority groups in Canada. The tips and strategies for addressing discrimination in social work practice and field education along with case studies and resources, provide ways for students to gain more knowledge about discrimination. This knowledge will contribute to the development of students’ learning agreements, anti-discrimination training, policy development, the creation of a reporting mechanism for discrimination, academic research, and classroom instruction.

References

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